When Nazi took the streets of Manhattan

 1939 Nazi rally at Madison Square Garden

Probably many people saw one short movie from Nazi rally in the 1930's Germany. Today, I will talk about one such event that did not happen in Germany, not even in Europe, but in the United States of America in 1939 on the eve of the Second World War. 

But, to understand what happened then, we need to know who was involved in this event. In 1933, when Adolf Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany, Heinz Spanknobel formed the Friends of New Germany, a pro-Nazi organization in the USA. Its ideology was the same as his European counterpart:

1. anti-Semitism
2. Pan-Germanism
3. Nazism
4. Isolationism

Flag of the German-American Bund

Through rallies, distributing literature and establishing youth camps where Nazi principles were taught, the organization managed to gain support, especially among German-Americans. Among its ranks, a key figure would in the person of Fritz Julius Kuhn. Born in Munich, in 1896, he was a German veteran of First World War. He joined the Nazi Party, but he was expelled shortly after. In 1927, Kuhn emigrated to the United States and became a US citizen in 1934. He settled in Detroit area and began working as an industrial engineer. It was here where he joined the German-American Bund. 

Fritz Julius Kuhn (1896-1951)

Possessing charisma and organizational skills contributed to his ascent within the Bund, and he became the leader of the organization. On February 20, 1939, the Bund rallied its supporters in Madison Square Garden. It is estimated that 20,000 people attended the event where Nazi symbols were featured and the speakers delivered anti-Semitic and pro-Nazi speeches. 

Photograph from the event

The rally had some sort of support but it was nevertheless highly criticized by the majority of the Americans disagreed with the movement, including several Jewish organizations and anti-fascists activists. Moreover, the Bund was heavily scrutinized by the US government and law enforcement. Eventually, Fritz Julius Kuhn was arrested for embezzlement and, as a result, the Bund's influence waned and dissolved in December 1941. As for Kuhn, he was released from prison in 1943 and deported to Germany. He would struggle financially until his death in 1951 in Munich.  

Plantagenet Kings

 John of Gaunt

 

He was the son of king and father of a king. But, paradoxically and ironically, he was not a king. John of Gaunt was born in 1340. The name ''Gaunt'' comes from the Flemish city of Ghent which was his birthplace. He was the third son of King Edward III of England. 

John of Gaunt (1340-1399)

During the mid 14 century, England and France had been embroiled in a series of constant battles known in history as the Hundred Years War (1337-1453). During the first phases of the conflict, England won several key battles against France at Crecy (1346) and Poitiers (1356). 

The Battle of Poitiers (1356). The Anglo-Gascon army, led by Edward the Black Prince, the heir of the English throne and John's eldest brother, defeated the army led by John II of France. The French King was subsequently captured by the English and ransomed four years later.

In 1359, John married Blanche of Lancaster, daughter of the Duke of Lancaster and his third cousin. In 1362, after his father-in-law passed away, John became Duke of Lancaster himself. However, Blanche will die in 1368, no before having three children. During 1370s, John will play an important role in the second phase of the Hundred Years War. His military campaigns would prove unsuccessful. Back in England, Edward the Black Prince died in 1376, followed a year later by his father, King Edward III. As a result, Richard, the Black Prince's son, would be crowned king. Because he was only twelve years old, a series of regency councils would govern the country. This proved a great opportunity for John to consolidate his power and influence at the court. In 1386, John left England to seek to throne of Castile, by claiming the right of his second wife, Constance of Castille, whom he had married in 1371. No sooner had he left, the crisis ensued. King Richard II's misrule brought England on the verge of a civil war between the Crown and a group of nobles known as the Lords Appellant, among them being Henry Bolingbroke, John's son. Therefore, John gave up on his claims to the Castillan Crown and returned to England in order to broker a truce between the king and nobles in 1389. During the 1390s, his reputation was restored and England experience of political stability and economic prosperity. John would eventually die in 1399. Immediately after his death, King Richard would confiscate his estates and forced Henry into exile. However, the latter would return the same with an army and deposed Richard, thus becoming King Henry IV of England. 

Plantagenet Kings

 Henry IV 

King Henry IV was born in April, 1367. He was the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster and son of King Edward III of England, and Blanche of Lancaster. 

Henry's epithet ''Bolingbroke'' came from his place of birth, the Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, England. 

Henry IV of England (1367-1413; reigned 1399-1413). He was the first English ruler since the Norman Conquest whose mother tongue was English rather than French.

In 1377, King Edward III of England, died of natural causes, and it was succeeded by his grandson Richard who would be crowned as King Richard II of England. Because Richard was still a child, a minority government was established to rule on behalf of the King. John of Gaunt, Henry's father, enjoyed a position of considerable influence in the government. In 1387, Henry was part of a parliamentarian group called ''Lord Appelants'' who managed to seize power from Richard during the session of the ''Merciless Parliament''. Unfortunately, the king reasserted his power, and as a result, the rebellious lords were either executed or exiled, but Henry was spared. Even so, in 1397, Henry was exiled for his involvement with the Lord Appelants. In 1399, John of Gaunt died, and Richard II confiscated all his lands and estates in England which were supposed to be inherited by Henry. As a consequence, the later decided to rally his allies and along with a small army decided to sail for England in order to confront his cousin. He landed in Yorkshire in the summer of 1399, and he took the advantage of the absence of Richard who had went on a military campaign in Ireland. Hearing the news that his cousin was on English soil, Richard immediately returned back but it was too late already. Henry had managed to gather all the nobles who were against the King. Seeing that he had no chance of winning, Richard abdicated and surrendered his crown to Henry who would crowned as King Henry IV of England. 

Coronation of Henry IV of England

Firstly, Richard was imprisoned in the Tower of London, but after a failed assassination attempt against Henry by his supporters in January 1400, he was starved to death at Pontefract Castle. This plot showed that Henry was actually an usurper rather than the rightful King of England. 

List of rebellions during the reign of Henry IV:

In 1400, Owain Glyndwr led a Welsh rebellion against Henry IV. Owain also proclaimed himself Prince of Wales. The Glyndwr rebellion was the last major revolt against English rule in Wales. Owain died in 1415, and shortly after his death the rebellion ended. 

Another important rebellion during the reign of Henry IV was the Henry Percival's revolts. In 1403, the rebel forces were defeated at the Battle of Shrewsbury. Henry Percival personally died after he was decisively defeated at the Battle of Bramham Moor (1408).

Foreign relations:

Manuel II Palaiologos and Henry IV in London, December 1400. Manuel is the only Byzantine Emperor ever to visit England. One of King Henry's ambitions was to lead a crusade to free Jerusalem and the Holy Land. He never did it, but he provided financial support for Manuel in his wars against the Ottoman Empire.  

Family:

Mary de Bohun (1369-1394). She was Henry's first wife. They had six children.

Joan of Navarre (1368-1437), Henry's second wife. Their marriage was childless.

The later years of reign were marked by serious health problems. Many believed that he suffered from leprosy or psoriasis. On March 20th, 1413, during a convocation of Parliament, King Henry IV died. His son Henry succeeded him as King Henry V of England. 

The effigy of Henry IV in Canterbury Cathedral

Plantagenet Kings

 Richard II

King Richard II was born on the 6th of January, 1367 at the Archbishop's Palace, in the western city of Bordeaux. He was the son of Edward the Black Prince, the eldest son of King Edward III of England.

Richard's father, Edward, earned his nickname from the colour of his own armour. During the conflict with France known as the 100 Years War, Edward distinguished himself in battle leading the English army during the famous Battle of Poitiers (1356) in which the French King John was captured.

King Richard II of England (1367-1400; reigned 1377-1399)

In 1376, the Black Prince died, followed by his father Edward III a year later. As a result, the young Richard became king. Being only 10 years old, a minority government was formed to govern the country on Richard's behalf. 

John of Gaunt (1340-1399). He was the Black Prince's younger brother, thus Richard's paternal uncle. After the death of Edward III, he exercised great influence over the English throne during the minority of King Richard II with some people accusing him of plotting to become King of England himself. The name ''Gaunt'' was derived from a corruption of the word ''Ghent'', the town where he was born.

There were high hopes from the new king. England had been fighting France for the last 40 years, and King Edward III was forced to levy new taxes in order to support the war effort. However, the minority government didn't abolish them and the new regime became unpopular. Moreover, the French defeated the English and they recaptured much of the land that had been lost in 1360. 

John Wycliffe (1328-1384). He was a Catholic priest whose greatest accomplishment was translating the Bible from Latin into English for the first time in history. He also advocated for reforms to be initiated in the English Church. His followers became known as the ''Lollards''.

In 1381, the taxes, which were initially for the wealthy classes only, were expanded to be collected from all adults, even the poor, a move which led to social unrest and then rebellion. The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 started in Kent and Essex in the early summer and it was led by Wat Tyler, John Ball and Jack Straw.

During the Peasants' Revolt, Simon Sudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Robert Hales, Lord High Treasurer of England, were killed by the rebels

Death of Wat Tyler (1341-1381). His death broke the spirit of the rebels and the revolt was defeated.

Even though the revolt was suppressed, it was a watershed moment in Richard's reign which brought to light all the weaknesses and vulnerabilities of his kingdom. In 1382, Richard married Anne of Bohemia, daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV, the most powerful European monarch at that time. Richard hoped that this marriage would secure enough financial support to finance his military campaigns in France, but Charles wasn't interested in waging wars against the French. 

Anne of Bohemia (1366-1394), Richard's first wife

Furthermore, the marriage produced no heirs, despite that the two were committed to each other. One specific person who was instrumental in this matrimonial arrangement was Michael de la Pole. He came from a family of wealthy wool merchants, and managed to win the King's confidence and gradually became more influent at the court. In 1383, he was appointed the Chancellor of the Exchequer and made Earl of Suffolk in 1385. In 1385, also a French army contingent landed in Scotland and raided Northern England. In response, Richard II personally led a punitive expedition into Scotland accompanied by John of Gaunt. They managed to reach Edinburgh but they didn't besiege the city because of the King's decision to return home. In 1386, the King convened the ''Wonderful Parliament'' where de la Pole asked for new taxes. In response, the parliament demanded the reform of the government and greater oversight of the Crown's finances in return for agreeing new taxes. Richard reluctantly agreed to allow the creation of a commission which could monitor the royal expenses for one year. Then he left London for a country-wide tour in February 1387 designed to build support. 

After his return to London, the King was immediately confronted by the parliamentarian opposition. 

Henry Bolingbroke (1367-1413), son of John of Gaunt and Richard's cousin, was one of the leaders of the opposition.

His plan didn't work out and the Parliament demanded the removal of de la Pole from his office on the allegation of treason. As a result, de la Pole was forced to flee from England. Two years later, he and other members of Richard's court were sentenced to death in absentia. For a while, a parliamentarian faction, called the Lords Appellant, managed to revoke King Richard's powers and they placed the kingdom under their regency. 

Truce of Leulinghem (1389) in which England and France agreed on a 3-year truce.

However, the King reasserted his authority, while the Lord Appelants were either exiled or sentenced to death. After years of political instability, the 1390s were considered the most successful period of Richard II's reign which allowed for the flourishing of English Late Medieval culture. 

Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400). He wrote ''The Canterbury Tales'', widely regarded as the foundational text in the formation of modern English literature.

In 1394, his wife died of bubonic plague which deeply affected Richard. In the same year in October, he embarked on military campaign in Ireland with little successes and by 1395 he had signed several treaties with the Irish Lords. 

Isabella of Valois (1389-1409). She was the daughter of King Charles VI of France and Richard's second wife.

In 1396, Richard married his second wife, Isabella of Valois, in order to secure a stronger peace with France. However, Isabella was still a child and it would take at least a decade before the marriage could be consummated. By 1397, Richard had become a more autocratic ruler and he had developed a new faction of close followers to who the King granted titles and lands. In addition, he called another Parliament at Shrewsbury in 1398 which was dominated by his own supporters and it repealed all the acts through the Wonderful and Merciless Parliaments. Meanwhile, all who tried to oppose him were either exiled or sentenced to death. In 1398, Henry Bolingbroke was banished and he headed for France. In 1399, his father, John of Gaunt, died of natural causes which gave Richard the opportunity to disinherit Henry of his John's estates. As a result, Henry allied himself with all the English nobles who were exiled in France and they started to raise an army. In the summer of 1399, he landed with a small force in Yorkshire, but he had another advantage: Richard was campaigning in Ireland once again. Soon, disaffected elements from all over Northern England started rallying under Henry's banner, while Richard left his key allies in Ireland. 

Richard surrendering his crown to Henry

Eventually, Richard was deposed, arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London. 

King Henry IV of England (1367-1413; reigned 1399-1413)

In January 1400, a group of rebels loyal to Richard tried to assassinate Henry and restore the former king. Known as the Epiphany Rising the rebellion was quickly defeated and as a punishment Richard was starved to death at Pontefract Castle. He died in February, 1400. 

Plantagenet Kings

 Edward III

King Edward III was born on November 13th, 1312 in Windsor Castle, Berkshire. He was the oldest son of King Edward II and Isabella of France, thus he was the heir to throne. 

King Edward III (1312-1377)

Edward II is remembered by all sources as a weak and incompetent king, who was always under the influence of either Pier Gaveston or Hugh Despenser. These favourites angered the nobles and his wife, and as result, a civil war broke out in 1321 between the king and the baronial opposition. In 1325, Queen Isabella left for France along with young Prince Edward. She joined Roger Mortimer, a Welsh lord who had rebelled against the king before. Isabella and Roger became lovers and they started to raise an army. They managed to secure financial support from William the I, Count of Hainault, on the condition young Edward would wed his daughter, Phillipa. 

 

William I, Count of Hainault (1286-1337), Edward III's father-in-law. 

Phillipa of Hainault (1310/1315-1369); Edward III's wife

In 1326, Isabella and Mortimer invaded England. Left without allies, King Edward III abandoned London just to be caught in South Wales. He died a year later while he was imprisoned. As a result, his son was crowned as King Edward III. Being a minor, his early reign was dominated by Isabella and her lover. In 1330, Edward managed to consolidate his power by having Roger Mortimer executed and his mother put under house arrest. At the same time, his first son, Edward the Black Prince, was born. In 1333, Edward supported Edward Balliol, son of the former Scottish King John Balliol, against King David II, son of Robert the Bruce, who was still a minor. The English army defeated the Scots at the Battle of Halidon Hill, and David was forced to leave for France. 

King David II of Scotland (1324-1371; reigned 1329-1371)

Scotland and France were traditional allies, but Edward had another strategy. His maternal grandfather was King Philip IV of France. When he died in 1314, his son Louis X followed him, but he died in 1316 without heirs. So, his younger brother Philip V ascended to the throne, but he died in 1322 without a male heir too and the throne was passed to Charles IV, the youngest son of Philip IV, who also died in 1328 without any male heirless as well, thus ending the Capetian Dynasty. Eventually, Philip VI of Valois, whose father was the younger brother of King Philip IV, became King of France. 

The Salic Law prevented women from inheriting the French Crown

Edward III accepted the succession at first, but when Philip confiscated the English Duchy of Aquitaine in 1337, he responded by laying claim to the French as the grandson of King Philip IV. However, the French nobles rejected this based on the precedents for agnatic succession in 1316 and 1322. As a result, the Anglo-French conflict known as the 100 Years War had begun. The first phase of the war (1337-1360) was a huge success for England. The French lost several major battles at Sluys (1340), Crecy (1346), and Poitiers (1356). The treaty of Bretigny (1360) forced France to give up many lands to English and pay war reparations. 

Battle of Sluys (1340)-> English naval victory

Battle of Crecy (1346)-> English decisive victory

Battle of Poitiers (1356)-> English decisive victory

King John II of France (1319-1364; reigned 1350-1364). He was captured at Poitiers by the English and the French government had to ransom him

Edward the Black Prince (1330-1376), Edward's eldest son and heir. He commanded the English army at the Battle of Poitiers where he won an astounding victory. He died before his father so he never became king.

English territorial gains (pink) after the Treaty of Bretigny (1360)

Meanwhile, David II returned to Scotland in 1346, but he was decisively defeated and captured at the Battle of Neville's Cross. He would spent 11 years in England as prisoner; in 1357, England and Scotland signed the Treaty of Berwick after which David II was released and recognized as King of Scotland by Edward. In 1369, King Charles V of France, son John II, resumed the war with England and reconquered all the lands lost by his father. In 1376, Edward the Black Prince died, followed by King Edward III a year later.

Tomb of Edward the Black Prince at Canterbury Cathedral

Richard, son of the Black Prince and grandson of Edward III, became King Richard II of England.

Plantagenet Kings

Edward II 

King Edward II was born April 25th, 1284. He was the son of King Edward I and Eleanor of Castille. Being born at Caernarfon Castle in Wales, he was given the title Lord of Caernarfon. Moreover, he had 3 elder brothers, so it was very unlikely that he would ever become king.

King Edward II (1284-1327; reigned 1307-1327)

However, all of his brothers had died by the time Edward reached adulthood. In 1301, young Edward accompanied his father in a campaign in Scotland. In 1307, Edward I ''Longshanks'' passed away after a long reign of 35 years. Before his death, Edward I exiled Piers Gaveston, his son's best friend, whose influence on Edward II had become problematic. The decision was an emotional blow for the young prince. Despite resembling his father's physical appearances, King Edward II had a different personality. He liked neither waging wars nor jousting, and he preferred the company of jesters and commoners instead of nobles. 

Piers Gaveston (1284-1312), 1st Earl of Cornwall; he was Edward's friend since childhood, and it was rumoured that the 2 were in a homosexual relationship, but it has never been proved

His first major action as King would infuriate the great Earls. A month after his coronation, Edward II gave the Earldom of Cornwall to Piers Gaveston. In 1308, Edward got married. His wife was Isabella of France, daughter of King Philip IV of France, who had been promised to him since 1303. In 1312, their first son, future King Edward III, was born.

Isabella of France (1295-1358). She was the daughter of King Philip IV of France

King Philip IV of France (1268-1314; reigned 1285-1314). After the Anglo-French War (1294-1303), Philip IV and Edward I signed the Treaty of Paris (1303) in which it was agreed that Edward II would marry Isabella when they would both come of age.

Over the next years, the influence of Gaveston increased significantly, as both the Earls and the Queen plotted to remove him from the Royal Court. Eventually, in the face of a growing opposition, Edward II accepted to sent Gaveston into exile in Aquitaine in 1308, but he then changed his mind, and instead he sent Gaveston to Ireland, as Lord Lieutenant. In 1309, he managed to convince the Earls to let Gaveston return home to England. Meanwhile in Scotland, King Robert the Bruce expelled the English from his realms and the Northern lords asked for a punitive expedition. In 1310, Edward led an army into Scotland, but he achieved little success and he returned back to England the next year. In England, the Lords Ordainers, a council of 21 Lords, signed the Ordinances of 1311, a series of reforms whose main aim was limiting the King's authority to go to war or to grant lands without Parliament's approval, but the Ordinances exiled Gaveston once more. Edward reluctantly agreed the document but the tensions remained, and as a result, the King decided to revoke the Ordinances and called Gaveston back in early 1312. The Earls were furious, so they decided to act. They found out that Gaveston was at Scarborough Castle and they surrounded the settlement. After the a brief siege, Gaveston surrendered and he was taken into custody by the Earl of Lancaster and Earl of Warwick. Even though he was granted a fair trial, Gaveston was thrown in jail and then beheaded. 

Gaveston's head shown to the Earl of Lancaster

King Edward was furious and sought to avenge the death of his favourite. In order to avoid an execution, the Earls who were involved in the murder of Gaveston agreed to provide financial support for another English military expedition in Scotland in 1314. At the Battle of Bannockburn, the Scots won a decisive victory against the English. To make the matter worse, the harsh winters and wet summers affected a great portion of the arable land of England, thus causing the Great Famine of 1315-1317. 

Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn (1314)

A new favourite:

Hugh Despenser ''the Younger'', was the husband of Eleanor de Clare, daughter of Gilbert de Clare and Joan of Acre, sister of Edward II. 

Hugh Despenser (1287-1326)

Like his father, he became Chamberlain and a close advisor of King Edward II in 1318, and he started accumulating more lands in the Welsh Marches and in England. His growing influence at the Court angered the nobles and Queen Isabella, so they once again allied to remove him. In 1321, Hugh and his father went into exile. King Edward II was furious and the civil war known as the Despenser War broke out.

Roger Mortimer (1287-1330), 1st Earl of the March. He was, along with Queen Isabella, the leading figure of the baronial opposition against Hugh Despenser. Later, he and Isabella became lovers.

In 1322, the Royalist won a decisive victory at the Battle of Boroughbridge. As a result, Hugh Despenser was called back to England, while Roger Mortimer was imprisoned in the Tower of London. In 1323, Mortimer escaped captivity and fled to France. Queen Isabella joined him two years later, during her journey to France to pay homage to Charles IV, her brother. Isabella refused to return to England and he and Mortimer started to raise an army. Charles IV didn't provide any financial support, so the lovers travelled to the Holy Roman Empire. In the end, William I, Count of Hainaut, accepted to help them on the condition that the young Prince Edward would marry his daughter Philippa.

William I, Count of Hainaut (1286-1337)

In the autumn of 1326, Isabella and Mortimer landed in England, and they were quickly joined by their English allies. Seeing that he was in a vulnerable position, Edward abandoned London. He was captured a month later in South Wales, and imprisoned. He finally died on September 21st, 1327, at Berkeley Castle probably assassinated by the orders of his wife Isabella and Roger Mortimer. His son followed him as King Edward III. As for his favourites, the Despensers, they were sentenced to death. 

Plantagenet Kings

 Edward I

King Edward I was born on June 17th, 1239. He was the son of King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence. 

King Edward I of England (1239-1307; reigned 1272-1307); he was named Edward because his father was a huge fan of the Anglo-Saxon king Edward the Confessor

Young Edward had a tough childhood, suffering from many illnesses. As a result, he was considered so weak that many believed that he would not outlive his father. However, he grew up into an unusually tall and robust teenager. In fact, for his unusual height of 6.2 feet, he earned his famous nickname ''Longshanks''. Furthermore, differences in character between Edward and Henry became more noticeable. While Henry was a very pious man, his son was energetic and had a volcanic temperament, leading to many arguments between the two. In 1258, a group of nobles, who were unhappy with King Henry's policies and the influence of the King's half-brothers, the Lusignans, drew up a document known as the Provisions of Oxford which proposed a series of reforms of the royal government. 

Simon de Montfort (1208-1265); he was King Henry III's brother-in-law and he supported the Provisions of Oxford

Edward sided with the nobles, thus souring his relationship with his father. Eventually, Henry secured the support of the Papacy and he repealed the Provisions of Oxford. This was not without consequences, and Barons led by Simon de Montfort rebelled against the King, in 1264. The Second Barons' War had  begun. Prince Edward, who had reconciled with Henry, supported his father in the conflict. The two armies met at the Battle of Lewes (1264). The rebels won a shocking victory which led to the imprisonment of both Henry and Edward. Montfort, being the de facto ruler of England, established a Protectorate ruled by Parliament. In 1265, Edward escaped captivity, and assembled a new army in order to release his father. At the Battle of Evesham (1265), Edward won a decisive victory; Simon de Montfort died on the battlefield, while King Henry III was released shortly afterwards. 

Eleanor of Castile (1241-1290); she was the first wife of Edward I; they got married in 1254, and they were both devout to each other, and they had 7 children

14th century manuscript depicting King Edward I with his wife Eleanor

In 1268, King Louis IX of France called for a Crusade in North Africa with the aim of conquering the city of Tunis. Edward joined the Crusade, in 1270, but when he arrived in Tunisia, King Louis had already died of dysentery. Becoming the commander-in-chief of the army, Edward decided to retreat to Sicily and then he set sail to the Holy Land. He achieved little successes her, but he managed to secure the city-port of Acre from the hands of the Egyptian Mamluks, in 1271. In 1272, upon his return from the Holy Land, Edward was given the news that his father had died. He was officially crowned King Edward I on August 19th, 1274, at Westminster Abbey. During his early reign, Edward focused primarily on streamlining and reforming the administration of his government. Between 1277 and 1283, he completed the conquest of all Wales; in 1290, his wife, Eleanor, died. The King was completely distraught at the loss of his wife. He became a hardened man in the wake of the loss, more bitter and brooding in nature. 

Imagine of King Edward I

His military campaigns in Wales were very expensive and imposed huge financial burdens upon the nation. The main source of income was taxation and a particular group in England was taxed far more heavily than others: the Jews. After a series of persecutions against the Jewish community, Edward issued the Edict of Expulsion (1290) by which all Jews were expelled from England. The ban was lifted in 1656.

The Scottish Problem:

In 1286, King Alexander III of Scotland died. Having no male heirs, the crown was passed to his daughter, Margaret, who was also the grand-daughter of Edward. Seeing an opportunity, Edward suggested that Margaret and Edward of Caernarfon, Edward's eldest son, should be united in marriage. 

Alexander III of Scotland (1241-1286; reigned 1249-1286); his death without a male hier would spark a succession crisis 

Unfortunately, Margaret died too, and many Scottish nobles claimed the crown. The English King was asked to play the role of arbitrator, and he agreed on the condition that the claimant accept him as his overlord. In 1292, he awarded the throne to John Balliol, who became the new King of Scotland. However, John rebelled against Edward and gathered his forces in March 1296. The Scots were defeated and John was thrown into the Tower of London. Scotland was once again kingless.

John Balliol (1249-1312; reigned 1292-1296)

In order to absorb Scotland into his kingdom, Edward demanded oaths of fealty from all Scottish nobles, Any who refused to do so were hunted down as outlaws. Being confident that he secured his northern flank, Edward turned his attention to France, which had recently allied with Scotland. Meanwhile, a new uprising started in Scotland, led by a man called William Wallace. In 1297, Wallace won a resounding victory at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. He then crossed the border and plundered the North of England.

William Wallace (1270-1305)

Edward, who was fighting the French in Flanders, decided to handle the situation personally. In 1298, he marched North with 17,000 men. The two armies met at Falkirk where the English won. Wallace managed to avoid being captured and he went into hiding. In 1305, Wallace was finally captured by the English and he was taken to London where he was hanged, drawn and quartered. A year later, Robert the Bruce killed all his rivals and crowned himself King of Scotland. 

Robert the Bruce (1274-1329; reigned 1306-1329). He is regarded as one of the greatest kings Scotland has ever had 

King Edward gathered his army once again, and marched North. However, on July 7th, 1307, he contracted dysentery and died. He was buried at Westminster Abbey. His son Edward became the new King of England as Edward II.