Turkey. Between democracy and dictatorship

 Turkey

Between democracy and dictatorship

As you may know, Recep Tayyip Erdogan has won another another 5-years term as President of Turkey. He is seen as an autocratic ruler, some people even calling him a dictator. As Turkey will celebrate 100 years since the proclamation of the republic, I am going to talk about this century of transition from an empire ruled by a sultan to a republic which was meant to be governed democratically.

Recep Tayyip Erdogan

The Ottoman Empire in 1914

After the First World War, the Ottoman Empire was defeated by the Entente, a coalition of nations which included UK, France, USA and Italy. The victorious powers forced the Turks to sign the Treaty of Sevres in 1920, which partitioned Turkey between France, UK and Greece. 

Partition of the Ottoman Empire, according to the Treaty of Sevres

However, the agreement was very unpopular in Turkey and the republican factions denounced it. The leaders of this groups were Mustafa Kemal and Ismet Inonu, former veterans of the First World War. 

Mustafa Kemal ''Ataturk''

Ismet Inonu

Eventually, they emerged victorious, and forced the Entente to sign the Treaty of Lausanne, in 1923. The treaty recognized the borders of Turkey, which they have remained the same until this day, and, the legitimacy of the Ataturk government. After that, the Grand Assembly of Turkey proclaimed the Republic of Turkey on October 29 1923.

Now let's talk about Turkey's new ruler. Born in 1881 as Mustafa Kemal, because ''Ataturk'' is a nickname which means ''Father of the Turks'', in Thessaloniki, modern Greece. He belonged to a lower-middle-class family, and he received a military education, attending the prestigious Ottoman Military Academy. He had an incredible career, rising through the ranks of the army very quickly. Furthermore, he took part in the First World War where he proved his military skills, especially during the Battle of Gallipoli.

Ataturk during WW1

After the conflict, he emerged as the leader of the Turkish Nationalist Movement, established a republican government in Ankara and managed to expel the foreign occupiers out of Turkey. As a result, he became the first President of the newly formed Republic of Turkey, in 1923. After that, he implemented a series of wide-ranging reforms known as ''Kemalism'', whose aim was to modernize and secularize Turkey such as allowing women to vote, free primary education and the construction of factories and railways. He died in 1938 and he was followed by Ismet Inonu. 

Empress Helena

Empress Helena

Born around 248 into an aristocratic family, she was the wife of Constantine I Chlorus, Constantine's father. He later divorced her in order to remarry for political reasons. Once his son became Emperor in 306, she converted to Christianity and acted as an advisor for him. She had a very good relationship with Crispus, his first nephew, whom Constantine made governor of Gaul. 

However, as I mentioned in a previous blog, Crispus and his step-mother were sentenced to death by Constantine in 326, for reasons that remain unknown. After this tragedy, which deeply affected Empress Helena, she decided to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land where she ordered the construction of a series of churches in both Bethlehem and Jerusalem.

Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem, one of the churches ordered by Helena

And this is where the story becomes interesting. During the building of a church on Golgotha, the hill where Jesus was crucified, under a former temple of Venus, a Roman goddess, the Christ's Cross was discovered. As a result, Emperor Constantine ordered the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Empress Helena holding the True Cross of Jesus

Of course, we don't know for sure if Helena really found the True Cross or it was just propaganda to boost the popularity of Constantine and Christianity throughout the empire. Keep in mind that, at this point, the majority of the Roman citizens still worshiped their own pagan gods, and the Christian communities represented a tiny proportion of the population.   

Edict of Milano

The edict of Milano, as it is known in history, was the proclamation which granted these rights to the Christian communities. It was a political agreement between Constantine, the Augustus of the West and Licinius, the Augustus of the East, in February 313 signed in Mediolanum (modern Milan).

Constantine I

Licinius

Overall, the edict granted all persons freedom of worship whatever deity they pleased, assured Christians of legal rights, such as organizing churches, and directed the prompt return to Christians of confiscated property. It is worth mentioning that this was not the first edict of tolerance. Former Roman Emperor Galerius, for example, issued the Edict of Tolerance in 311, which ended the Christian persecution started by Emperor Diocletian. 

Galerius

Emperor Constantine I. A lesser known story

 Emperor Constantine I

A lesser known story

Let's begin with Crispus. Born around 305 CE, he was the eldest son of Constantine with his first wife, Minervina. He received his education the Christian writer Lactantius. In 317, he was given the title of Caesar, and, as a result, he was made the governor of the Roman province of Gaul. He proved to be a very capable commander, by defeating the Franks in 320 and the Alamanni in 322 and 323. Furthermore, he accompanied Constantine in his campaign against Licinius in 324. 

Crispus

It appears that everything went to well for our hero to end up bad. Yes? Well, no😅. Like I said, Crispus was the son of Constantine with his first wife, Minervina. But, he divorced her in order to marry another woman, Fausta. Born in 289, she was the daughter of emperor Maximian.  

Fausta

Emperor Maximian

Now, there are many theories why both Fausta and Crispus ended up executed. Historians Zosimus and Zonaras agreed that she and Crispus plotted to dethrone Constantine. They also claim that Fausta had an affair with his step-son. Whatever the truth is, we know for sure that Constantine had them both executed in 326 CE.

Emperor Constantine and his mother Helen. The story behind the legend

 Emperor Constantine and his mother Helen

The story behind the legend

Yesterday, all Christians around the world celebrated Saints Constantine and Helen. Many of you probably know one or two things about this Roman Emperor of the 4th century. He built the city of Constantinople, modern Istanbul, and recognized Christianity as an official religion of the Roman Empire. But who was this fascinating figure and why is he celebrated along with his mother? Let's find out.

A statue of Constantine I

Born around 280 CE in Moesia, modern-day Bulgaria, as Flavius Valerius Constantinus, he was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantinus, an army officer. Back then, the empire was ruled by 2 senior emperors named Augustus, each one of them having a deputy emperor, named Caesar. This system was called the ''Tetrarchy''. In 293 CE, his father became deputy Emperor of the Roman Empire (Caesar). As a result, Constantine was sent to serve under the senior Emperor Diocletian at Nicomedia (modern Izmit, Turkey).

Constantinus I

Emperor Diocletian. He is the one who established the ''Tetrarchy'' system in the Roman Empire. He is also famous for persecutions against Christians

In 305, following the abdication of both senior emperors, Constantinus became Augustus, but died a year later while campaigning in Britain with his son. Having the support of his father's legions, Constantine became the new Augustus of the Roman Empire. By 324, he had defeated all his rivals, abolished the ''Tetrarchy'' and become the sole ruler of Rome. Constantine ascribed his success to his conversion to Christianity. The legend says that before his greatest battle at the Milvian Bridge, he had received instructions in a dream to paint the Christian monogram on his troops shields. Therefore, his army was victorious. However, many critics argue that his conversion to Christianity was purely political. Even so, his laws, especially the Edict of Milan, allowed Christianity to develop and expand throughout the Roman Empire. 

The Tower of London. Mysteries, murder and power

The Tower of London

Mysteries, murder and power

 

Tower of London

William the Conqueror as depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry

After his victory at the Battle of Hasting, in 1066, King William the Conqueror of England and Duke of Normandy ordered the construction of a vast network of fortifications. As a result, 36 new castles were built, including the Tower of London. Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, was made responsible for its construction. It is worth noting, that Normans used timber, not stone, to build their castles.

Gundulf

A Norman settlement

The first expansion of the castle occurred during the reign of king Richard I (1189-1199). However, Richard was busy fighting Saladin in Levant during the Third Crusade, so William Longchamp, king's Lord Chancellor, handled the task.

 

King Richard I

In the 13th century, king Henry III (1216-1272) and king Edward I (1272-1307) extended the castle, creating as it stands today. One of the most notorious story about the Tower is the story of the princes. In 1483, king Edward IV died and was succeeded by his son, Edward V. 

Edward IV

Edward V

However, because he was only 13 years old, the prince was too young to rule. Therefore, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and uncle of Edward V was declared Lord Protector and ordered that Edward and Richard, his younger brother, to be confined in the Tower of London. In the summer of 1483, our little princes vanished and they were never seen again. In consequence, Lord Richard was crowned as King Richard III of England, thus supporting the theory that he killed them both.

Richard III

Edward and Richard

From the 16th century onwards, the Tower's role as a royal residence declined and it was used as a jail for political prisoners or as a deposit for guns and ammunition. Today, it is the home of The Crown Jewels of England.

Colchester. A small town with a huge history

Colchester

A small town with a huge history

Located in East Anglia, the settlement is considered one of the oldest recorded towns in Britain. It was first mentioned in the 1st century BC, when it was the residence of king Cunobelin of the Catuvellauni (5BC-40AD) under the Celtic name Camulodunon.

Coin of king Cunobeline

It was claimed that Camelot, the residence of the legendary king Arthur, was a corruption of this Celtic name, but it was never supported with relevant evidence. In the year 43AD, the Roman Empire invaded and conquered Britannia. As a result, a Roman legionary fortress was established in Colchester which would become the capital of the newly formed Roman province. However, the fortress would be severely damaged after queen Boudica's revolt in 61 AD. Today, only a small section of the Roman walls remains from the former settlement. 

A statue of queen Boudica, near Westminster, London

Fast forward, after the Roman retreat from Britain in 410 AD, Saxon invasion and subsequent Norman invasion in 1066, the Colchester Castle was built around year 1100 on the top of the vaults of a Roman temple. 

Colchester Castle. It may look big in this picture, but trust me. It is not. I wish, I could have visited it, but I was in a hurry, so maybe next time

In 1189, king Richard I the Lionheart granted the city a royal charter. Colchester developed rapidly in the 14th century, as a centre of the wool cloth industry. This allowed the city to recover from the Black Death, which killed almost of the population. As of 2022, Colchester has the city status.

Lavenham. The empire of wool

 Lavenham 

The empire of wool

Located in East Anglia, the village dates back from Anglo-Saxon times. After the Norman conquest of 1066, the land was in possession of Aubrey de Vere I, a tenant-in-chief of king William the Conqueror. 

King William the Conqueror/First of England

Lavenham experienced its golden age between the 15th and the 16th century. This is when the wool trade became a very profitable business in England and, as a result, the village prospered, becoming one the wealthiest settlements in the kingdom. Various rich merchant families emerged, the best known being the Spring family. Richard Spring, the Lord Risby, a former member of the UK Conservative Party and former MP (member of the Parliament) from 1992 to 2010, was born into this family.

Spring family coat of arms

Richard Spring (b.1946-)

Back to our village, as a symbol of great wealth and prosperity, the wool merchants donated for the construction of the church of St. Peter and St. Paul. Because it was financed primarily by revenues generated from wool trading, it is considered a ''wool church'', and, it is not the only wool church in England. 

Church of St. Peter and St. Paul

The construction ended in 1525, it is probably one of the most beautiful worshiping places I have ever seen. And yes, I am subjective when I say that, so, don't judge me😂. Other objectives to visit are the timbered framed buildings, such as Lavenham Wool Hall, the former guildhall which was built in 1464,  and Guildhall of the catholic guild of Corpus Christi, built in 1529 and it is located in the centre of the village.

Lavenham Wool Hall

Lavenham Guildhall

Unfortunately, in the 16th century, the influx of Dutch refugees in the region had negative consequences over the wool trade. The merchants from Lower Countries commercialized cloth, which was cheaper to be produced than wool, and more fashionable. Eventually, after some plagues in the 17th century, the village suffered a decline in population and lost its prestige. However, it managed to conserve its values and symbols.

 Coronation Day
Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross

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Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross

Queen Elizabeth II holding the sceptre

There are two sceptres actually: the first one with cross and the second with dove, also known as ''the Rod of Equity and Mercy''. The former, however, is more special because, it possess the Cullinan I, a 530.2-carat diamond which is the largest colorless diamond in the world. It was cut from the largest diamond ever found: the 3,106-carat Cullinan diamond, which was discovered in modern-day South Africa in 1905. It was named after the town of Cullinan, the location where it was found. The diamond was added to the sceptre in 1910. 

Back to our object, the sceptre, which dates to king Charles II (reigned 1660-1685), is a gold rod and is about 92 cm long and weighs about 1.3 kilograms. It symbolises the monarch's temporal power. During the investiture segment of the coronation, the sceptres and other items, including the Sovereign's Orb, are handed to the monarch. 

A better observation of the Cullinan I 

King Charles III holding both the Sceptre and the Orb

The Sceptre with Dove

Coronation Day. Coronation Chair

Coronation Day

Coronation Chair

 

Coronation Chair

Located in Westminster Abbey, this chair is where the king/queen of the UK is ''enthroned'' during coronation procession. It was made at the request of Edward I of England (reigned 1272-1307) in 1296. The high-backed chair is made of oak and stands 2.05 meters tall. It is decorated with gold-gilt animals and foliage and the back features an image of Edward the Confessor. 

Coronation Chair at Westminster Abbey

King Charles 3rd wearing St Edward's Crown while sitting on the Coronation Chair during his coronation

Even though it has a big importance, the Coronation Chair was not well secured in the 18h and 19th century. As a result, the chair was defaced with graffiti many times. One notable example is ''P. Abbott slept in this chair 5-6 July 1800'', which was carved into the chair's seat.

Some carvings from the chair

Coronation Day. Coronation Spoon

Coronation Day

Coronation Spoon

  

Coronation spoon

Despite the fact that it is probably the simplest item in the coronation, it is the oldest piece of regalia, dating to the 12th century. And I thought my baby spoon was old😂. Anyway, the spoon is used for the most sacred part of coronation: the anointing. It is about 10.5 inches long and is covered in intricate engravings. 

As a fun fact, after the bloody English Civil War (1642-1648), when the monarchy was overthrown, king Charles I was beheaded whereas his heir, future king Charles II, fled to France, Oliver Cromwell, the head of the newly established republican government, ordered that all pieces of the regalia to be destroyed. The objects or either broken or melted down, as we have seen with Saint Edward's crown. But, the spoon survived. Actually, it was sold for 16 shillings, which was the payment of 11 days of work for a skilled tradesman. In today's money, the amount would be about 100$. So, just imagine  buying this piece of regalia for only 100 bucks on Amazon or eBay😂. 

Fortunately, the spoon was purchased by a member of the royal household, and he returned the item in 1660, after the restoration of Charles II as king of England. Since then, it has been used in every crowning.

Coronation Day. Sovereign's Orb

Coronation Day

Sovereign's Orb 

As you may know, May 6th marked the coronation of Charles as King Charles III of Great Britain and other 13 countries. Yesterday, I talked about St. Edward's Crown which is used only for the coronation of the British monarch. However, there are other important objects, and today I am going to talk about the Sovereign's Orb.

Sovereign's Orb

Dating back from 1661, when it was created for the coronation of king Charles II, the orb has a powerful symbolism. It represents the Christian world and the belief that the monarch's power is derived from God. During the coronation procession, the newly crowned king or queen holds it in the right hand.

King Charles II holding the Orb

Charles III holding the Orb

The Sovereign Orb is hollow and it weighs about 1.32 kg. It consists of 9 gems, 18 rubies, 9 sapphires, 365 diamonds and 375 pearls. There was an attempt to steal it by Colonel Thomas Blood, in 1671. Eventually, the robbers were caught and the guards found that Blood had hidden the Orb in his pants. Amused by this event, king Charles II pardoned him. I hope that his Highness also ordered the Orb to be cleaned after this incident as well. 😆

Colonel Thomas Blood (1618-1680)