Karl Marx

Karl Marx is probably one of the most important historical figures. His works inspired a new philosophy, the Communism, which took over Eastern Europe and East Asia in the 20th century. But, who was the man behind the myth?

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Karl Marx was born in 1818, in Trier, Kingdom of Prussia. He belonged to an upper-middle class family of Jews who had converted to Christianity recently. He had 8 brothers and sisters. In 1835, he enrolled at Bonn University to study law, but he had poor grades. As a result, he transferred to the University of Berlin, in 1836. At the same time, he became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, his love interest since childhood.

Jenny von Westphalen

In Berlin, young Marx became more interested in philosophy, especially in the works of the recently deceased German philosopher George Hegel. Furthermore, he joined the Young Hegelians, a group of radical thinkers. In 1838, his father passed away, leaving Marx in a precarious financial situation. In need for money, he got a job as a journalist for Rhineland News. Here, he got a chance to openly express his socialist ideas and by 1842 he had become editor-in-chief. Unfortunately, the newspaper was closed by the Prussian government, in 1843. 

Arnold Ruge (1802-1880)

Being jobless and just got married, Marx decided to relocate to Paris. In France, he met Arnold Ruge, a left-wing activist, and they established a journal, the German-French Annals with the aim of attracting both German and French writers. Marx contributed 2 essays to the paper. In the 2nd essay, ''On the Jewish Question'' he introduced his belief that the working class/proletariat were a revolutionary force. The journal was quickly banned by the French authorities, and after an argument with Ruge, Marx began writing for a radical German newspaper, the Vorwarts (Forward). In 1844, he also met Fredrich Engels and the 2 became lifelong friends. 

Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)

A year later, Vorwarts was also banned by the French, and once again Marx had to relocate. This time, in Brussels. This is the place where Marx and Engels would write their masterpiece. Published in 1848, The Communist Manifesto is a political pamphlet, commissioned by the Communist League and it first appeared in London. It examines the clashes of interest between the bourgeoisie (the wealthy capitalist class) and the proletariat (the working class) and it justifies why the Communist League was truly acting in the interests of the proletariat to overthrow the capitalist society and to replace it with socialism. Later that year, Europe experienced a series of protests and rebellions that became known as the Revolutions of 1848. Marx allegedly tried to arm Belgian workers who were planning revolutionary actions. As a result, the Belgian government forced him to leave the country immediately.

The Communist Manifesto

Marx and Engels returned to Paris and then they moved to Cologne. They started a new publication, the Rhenish Newspaper: Organ of Democracy to put forward news across Europe with his own Marxist interpretation of events. Once again however, the Prussian state closed his newspaper and forced him to leave. After a short stop in Paris, Marx chose his final destination: London. The capital of the mighty British Empire was not unknown to him. Back in the 1840s, he had visited many English factories in which he could notice the poor conditions of the workers. 


Without finances to establish a newspaper, Marx turned to international journalism. In 1852, he became the European correspondent for the New-York Daily Tribune, the most read newspaper in the United States at that time. In 1881, his wife passed away, an event which destroyed Marx emotionally. He would die 2 years later, at age 64. 

Tomb of Karl Marx, Highgate Cemetery, London

Charlemagne. The Father of Europe

Charlemagne 

The Father of Europe

Charlemagne is one the greatest leaders of the early Middle Ages. He was the first monarch to conquer a good part of Western Europe, thus becoming the first Emperor in the West since the fall of the Western Roman Empire. But who is this interesting historical figure?

Born in 742AD, in Aachen, he was the son of the Pepin the Short, the King of the Franks. His grandfather was Charles Martel from the Carolingian family. Charles was not a king, but the Mayor of Palace, the equivalent of Prime-Minister, while the ruling dynasty were the Merovingians. However, in 751AD, Pepin managed to depose Childeric III, the last Merovingian king and as a result he was crowned the new King of the Franks. 

Pepin the Short (751-768)

Charles Martel (688-741); he defeated the Arab armies at the Battle of Tours (732 AD)

Charlemagne (768-814 AD)

In 768 AD, Charlemagne became King after his father passed away. However, he ruled his kingdom along with his brother, Carloman. The 2 brothers had opposite characters and they developed a powerful rivalry. Fortunately, Carloman died in 771 AD, leaving Charlemagne the sole-ruler of the kingdom.  

Europe in 771AD

There was little time for mourning, because in 772AD, Charlemagne embarked on a series of military campaigns to expand his realm. His first target were the Saxons, in the North of Germany. The casus belli was the burning of a church in Deventer. It is worth mentioning that the Saxons had not been Christianized yet. Thus, it started a war which lasted for more than 30 years in which many atrocities and crimes against humanity were committed. Furthermore, in 774AD, the Franks crossed the Alps to defeat the Lombards in Northern Italy.  Additionally, he conquered the Avars, a nomad tribe from Pannonia, and defeated the Arabs in the Iberian Peninsula.

Carolingian Empire, 814AD

In 799AD, Pope Leo III had been assaulted by some of the Romans who wanted to depose him. He managed to find refuge at Charlemagne's court. In return, Charlemagne crossed the Alpes and held a synod in December 800AD. Pope Leo swore his oath of innocence to the Frankish King and in an attempt to consolidate his position took a radical decision. On Christmas Day, 800AD, Charlemagne knelt at the altar of the Saint Peter's Basilica in order to pray when the Pope decided to crown him 'Emperor of the Romans'. Whether or not Charlemagne knew about this, it is still a matter of debate. 

In 814AD, aged 72, Emperor Charlemagne died. He was succeeded by his son, Louis. Unfortunately, he did not manage to keep the empire united, and as a result it was partitioned by his three sons, in 843AD

 

The Investiture Controversy 

The Investiture Controversy was a conflict between the Church and the state in medieval Europe over the ability to appoint bishops and abbots of monasteries the Pope himself. The conflict took part in the 11th century, but its origins date back to the 9th century.

A medieval king investing a bishop in office 

On December 25th, 800 AD, the Frankish King Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III. As a result, the new Emperor attracted the majority of the clergymen in his Empire, and they were granted rights to govern cities and provinces. The reasons behind this move are quite simple: clergymen were educated and they couldn't pass their titles. However, Charlemagne decided to invest many laymen as bishops, which drew many criticism.

 

Pope Leo III crowning Charlemagne

Over the next 2 centuries, the sins of simony and nicholaism corrupted the church, and there were calls for reforms. In 1046, 3 cardinals, Benedict IX, Sylvester II, Gregory VI, competed in order to become the new Pope. In the end, Henry III the Black, King of the Germans, supported a fourth cardinal and in the Council of Sutri, Suidger von Morsleben was elected as Pope Clement II. The new Pope also crowned Henry as Holy Roman Emperor. This was a precedent because it was the first time when a German monarch influenced the election of the Pope. Moreover, the next 3 popes after Clement were all Germans. 

Holy Roman Emperor Henry III

Pope Clement II

In 1056, Henry III passed away. He was followed by his 6-year-old son, Henry IV. In 1059, Pope Nicholas II passed a Papal Bull in which he consolidated the power of the Papacy, thus reducing the Imperial influence. Furthermore, future Popes will be elected by a Papal conclave. In 1061, Nicholas died and Pope Alexander III was elected. However, the Imperials supported an Anitpope, named Honorius II. He managed to overthrow Nicholas and claim the power in Rome, but he lost his support quickly and fled. 

In 1073, Pope Gregory VII was elected. He was a staunch anti-Imperialist, and in 1075 he issued the 'Dictatus Papae'. This document stipulated that only the Pope could appoint/dismiss bishops. Additionally, Pope had power to depose the Holy Roman Empire.

Pope Gregory VII

Dictatus Papae 

This decision was not without repercussions. In 1076, Henry IV called a synod in which he did not acknowledge Pope Gregory VII. In retaliation, Pope excommunicated the Emperor. Noticing that he had little support, Henry decided to meet the Pope in person to beg forgiveness. In 1077, the 2 met at the Castle of Canossa, Tuscany, and they made peace. 

Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII

The peace did not last for too long. In 1080, Henry faced a second excommunication, but this time he had consolidated his power and he decided to fight back. So, he supported Antipope Clement III, in 1084. Left without allies, Gregory fled Rome and died a year later. Even so, the new Antipope faced a lot of opposition in Rome, and he could not assert his power. In the end, the Investiture Controversy ended in 1125, when Holy Roman Emperor Henry V and Pope Callixtus II signed the Concordat of Worms. 

 The Long Room

One of the most important part of the Old Library Building is the Long Room. This is situated on the first floor of the Old Library and is a joy to behold. The room is the single-room library in Europe at 65 meters length and contains over 200,000 of some of the oldest books in the library's possession. 

The Long Room

It is a working library with reading room at both ends of the gallery. Given the rarity of the books in this room, special care is taken with use and preservation. Readers are requested for particular volumes, due to the fragility of the manuscripts. A programme of scanning some of the volumes is in progress so that online access may be available in the near future. 

A Long Room shelving

1916 Proclamation of the Irish Republic. One of the last copies is located in the Long Room 

The 'Brian Boru' Harp

Brian Boru, the High King of Ireland (1002-1014)

A long tradition of displaying some of the Long Room's shelved material in display cases, along the center of the floor, under specific themes, has continued until recent times. The intent was to give a flavour of the material in the collection. These were arranged under specific themes and some of the titles of the most recent, popular ones, give a sense of this: Samuel Beckett centenary exhibition (2006), Napoleon: emperor of the French (2009), Oscar Wilde: The Picture of Dorian Grey (2010).

The Old Library.Trinity College Dublin

The Old Library  

Trinity College Dublin

The Old Library building, home to the Book of Kells, was constructed between 1712 and 1732. The architect was Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Burgh, a Trinity College graduate who served as a military engineer in the army of King William III in the 1690s.

The Old Library Building

The reason why it took so long to the construction to be completed was partly due to the lack of funds from the British government due to the changing political situation in London and within the college itself. Eventually, the building was opened in 1732, and it was welcomed by all.

The Long Room with its flat ceiling

Thomas Burgh's other work in the capital included contributing to the reconstruction work on Dublin Castle, the old Custom House and St. Werburgh's Church. Today, the library has over 6 million items.

The Book of Kells 

 The Book of Kells is an illuminated manuscript and Celtic Gospel book in Latin, containing four Gospels of the New Testament. It has 680 pages.

Book of Kells; Christ enthroned

The manuscript was produced by Irish monks, probably on the Island of Iona, near Scotland around the year 800 AD. The importance of the book can't be over emphasized and its beauty is such that it has been compared to the 'work of the angels'. Considering the fact that the vast majority of people in the 9th century were illiterate, this work is more important than we believe.

Monastery of Iona; it is believed that the Book of Kells was written here

A page from the Book of Kells

In the year 806 AD Vikings from Scandinavia began raiding the regions in the North of Scotland and its isles. The monastery of Iona was ransacked, and several of the monks were killed. The survivors hurriedly retreated to Ireland, bringing the manuscript with them and relocated to the monastic settlement of Kells, Co Meath. The Annals of Ulster first mentioned the book when it was stolen in 1007. 

Abbey of Kells from where the book took its name

The manuscript remained in the abbey for the next 650 years until the time of the Cromwellian Wars. Henry Jones, the Vice-Chancellor of the Trinity College, arranged in 1646 to remove the book from the Kells to its current location: The Trinity College Dublin. Overall, there are no historical records to provide information about the origins of the book or why was it written in the first place. However, it has become an important tourist attraction in Ireland and it brings up to 750,000 visitors per year. 

Belfast. Its shipbuilding history

 Belfast 

Its shipbuilding history

Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland, one of the 4 constituent countries of the United Kingdom. The city stands on the banks of River Lagan on the east coast. 

Main building and skylines of the city of Belfast

The history of the city begins in 688 AD, when a small village was established at the lowest fording point of the River Logan. Throughout the Middle Ages, Belfast was a minor settlement; however, in 1613, King James I of England issued a Royal Charter which made provision for a town wharf- a freeport. This was a watershed moment for Belfast, and as a result, the shipbuilding industry started to develop. 

King James I of England (1603-1625) and King of Scotland as James VI (1567-1625)

The ''Eagle Wing'' was built in Belfast Lough to carry Presbyterians from Ulster to New England where they hoped to enjoy religious freedom. The ship sailed from Groomsport, County Down, in September 1636, but due to storms it was forced to return. In 1667, 9 men involved in soap production in Glasgow invested heavily and foreign trade. They built a large ship, Lyon, in Belfast, carrying 40 pieces of ordnance, with rigging, ammunition and provision.

In 1791, William Ritchie moved to Belfast from Saltcoats, Scotland to establish a successful business with his younger brother Hugh. Their first ship, Hibernia, was launched in 1792, and it would be followed by other 39 ships.

William Ritchie (1756-1834)

Hugh Ritchie set up his own shipyard in 1798 but he died a few years later and was succeeded by another brother, John Ritchie, who came over from Saltcoats to Belfast in 1807. In 1811, John joined his forces with Alexander McLaine, another Ulster-Scot, to found Ritchie & McLaine. In 1820, the company launched its first steamship, the Belfast.

During the 19th century, Belfast embarked on a process of industrialization. Along with shipbuilding, linen mills became another economic sector, thus earning its nickname ''Linenopolis''. This resulted in a massive population increase. For instance, in 1808 Belfast had a population of around 25,000 people. By 1841, it had increased to 70,000 people, and by 1911 it had reached to 385,000 people, thus making the city the most populated urban town in Ireland at that time.

 Dublin Castle

Dublin Castle is a former Motte-and-bailey castle and current Irish government complex and conference centre. It is located on the highest point of central Dublin.

Dublin Castle

The Anglo-Normans began their conquest of Ireland in the late 12th century. The castle was first founded as a major defensive work by Meiler Fitzhenry on the orders of King John of England in 1204. Until 1922 it was the seat of the British government's administration in Ireland. The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland or Viceroy of Ireland, the representative of the Monarch, had his official residence here. Much of the current buildings date from the 18th century.

The Record Tower, the sole surviving tower of the medieval castle dating from 1228

Entry to the State Apartments. The State Apartments contain the rooms formerly used by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Today, these richly decorated rooms are used by the Irish government for official engagements including policy launches or hosting State Visit ceremonial

After Ireland became independent in 1922, the castle assumed to the role of the Four Courts, the legal complex badly damaged during the Irish Civil War (1922-1923). In 1938, the inauguration of Douglas Hyde, the first President of Ireland, took place in the castle. As a result, the complex has been host to this ceremony ever since. 

Douglas Hyde, 1st President of Ireland (1938-1945)

Below, there are the main rooms of the State Apartments complex:

Throne Room

State Corridor

St. Patrick's Hall. In 1897, Earl Cadogan, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland gave a banquet to celebrate the 60th year of the reign of Queen Victoria

 Trinity College Dublin

The University of Dublin, Trinity College was founded by Queen Elizabeth I in 1592. In the royal charter the name given was: ''The College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity near Dublin''. Its main purpose was to promote civility, learning and Protestant piety among the Irish people who are a Catholic nation.

Trinity College, the main entrance

The seal of the college

Queen Elizabeth I of England (1558-1603)

The terms ''University of Dublin'' and ''Trinity College'' are synonymous because the University of Dublin consists of only one college. Another controversy is the date of the founding itself. Some manuscripts mention 1591 as the founding date, while some historians consider 1592 the right year. The main reason behind this debate is simple: Britain and Ireland were late in accepting the Gregorian calendar.

The Corporation of Dublin allocated over 30 acres to the new university almost 1 kilometer east of the centre of Dublin city. The land had been the site of the Priory of All Hallows until the dissolution of the monasteries by King Henry VIII 60 years previously. The majority of the early Provosts of the university came from Cambridge University, which is why the curriculum of Cambridge played a major role in the first years of Trinity College.

However, the enrollment was quite small. In the mid-1640s, there were less than 20 students enrolling up per year. The main subject was theology, the aims being the education of prospective clergymen in the Protestant tradition. The years that followed would prove to be even harder. With the accession of James II to the throne in England in 1685 the university almost went bankrupt. The English king was a staunch Catholic and as a result, he did not provide enough financial support for this Protestant college. 

James II of England (1685-1688)

Fortunately, King James was deposed in bloodless coup called the Glorious Revolution, in 1688. He was later defeated in battle by William of Orange, the new Protestant King of England and James' son-in-law. James II would die in exile years later. 

William III of England (1689-1702)

This shift of power was good news for Trinity College. Once again, the college received funds from the Crown and it managed to expand as the most important alma mater in Ireland. Although religion would continue to play a significant part in the life of Trinity College, and across Ireland as a whole over the following centuries, academic excellence was the prime focus of most of those involved with the college's development and that remains to this day.

Bastille Day

July 14th, 1789

Parisians storm the Bastille

The year is 1789. France, one of the richest European kingdoms, had become a shadow of its former self. Ruled for more than a century by the Bourbons, the endless military conflicts of the 18th century brought the country on the verge of financial collapsing. From a social point of view, the situation was even worse. The French feudal society had three classes/estates:

• first class was the clergy
• second class was the nobility
• third class was the commoners

While the third represented almost 80% of the French population, it was the most oppressed of all three. While both the clergy and the nobility enjoyed many privileges granted by the French monarchy, the third estate had almost no rights at all. In order to address this growing tensions, King Louis XVI summoned the Estates General, in 1789. This legislative assembly, which was composed of representatives from all three classes, had not been summoned since 1614.

Estates General of 1789

King Louis XVI (1774-1792)

The procedures were quite simple. Each estate had one vote, so in order to pass a law 2 out 3 votes were required. While there were calls for major financial and social reforms, these proposals fell to deaf ears, as both the clergy and the aristocracy refused to support them. As a result, the 3rd estate decided to form its own parliament, the National Assembly. Despite King Louis' attempts to disband it, the 3rd estate remained united, and they were also joined by some of the nobles and the clergy. 

Now, let's talk about Bastille. This fortress was built in the 14th century, during the Hundred Years War, as part of Paris defense system. It became a state prison, in 1417. King Louis XVI used it to jail his major political opponents, and by 1780's, it became a symbol of tyranny and absolutism monarchy in France. But one day was about to change the thread of history forever.

Bastille in 1789

On July 14th, 1789, tens of thousands of Parisians gathered up around the prison. They demanded immediate surrender of the fortress and the release of all prisoners. Now, to be fair, the real reason behind the storming of the fortress was not the one many people believe. The Parisians had previously stormed the Hotel des Invalides, from which they had taken all the weapons gathered there (around 30,000 muskets), but they did not have any gunpowder. It had all been stored in Bastille, so the people marched on the prison. Bernard-René Jourdan de Launay, the governor of Bastille, refused to surrender Bastille to the angry mob. 

Bernard-René Jourdan de Launay, the last governor of Bastille

Storming of the Bastille

Therefore, the mob decided to take Bastille by force, and they succeeded, without much opposition. They took all the gunpowder, along with four canons, and they also released the prisoners, seven in total. As for monsieur Bernard, well, he was killed by the mob.

Militia hoisting the head of Bernard Rene on a pike. 

Bastille was demolished shortly after that. Today, the Place of Bastille replace the old prison. There is no vestige of the old fortress left, but even so, the memory of this event will remain in history forever, not just for France but for all societies fight for freedom against tyranny.