Plantagenet Kings

 Henry II

King Henry II was born on the 5th of March, 1135, at Le Mans in Normandy. He was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, Touraine and Maine and Empress Matilda, former wife of the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry V. She was the daughter of King Henry I of England.

King Henry II of England (1135-1189; Reign 1154-1189)

Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou (1113-1151); Henry's father

Empress Matilda (1102-1167); Henry's mother

King Henry I was the third son of King William the Conqueror, who had conquered England, in 1066. Henry succeeded his elder brother, William Rufus, in 1100. In 1120, his son William Adelin died in the White Ship tragedy, thus causing a future succession crisis. 

King Henry I of England (1068-1135; Reigned 1100-1135)

William Adelin (1103-1120); Henry's heir apparent to the throne

In 1135, Henry I died of illness. Being the grandchild of the king, Henry had a strong claim to the throne; however, it was Henry I's nephew, Stephen of Blois, who was crowned as King of England. As a result, a civil war became known as ''The Anarchy'' started and it would last for 20 years.

King Stephen I of England (c.1097-1154; Reigned 1135-1154); he was the cousin of Empress Matilda

In 1139, Matilda led personally an invasion to Southern England, with several key noble allies. Despite being unable to defeat King Stephen's forces, she secured key footholds in England. Meanwhile, young Henry was in France, where he received a proper education for a future king. When he was 9, his parents sent him to Bristol, England, in order to galvanize his supporters. In 1147, Henry led a military expedition to England himself. In 1150, he paid homage to King Louis VII of France, thus recognizing him as his overlord. In 1151, Geoffrey died. As a result, Henry became Duke of Normandy, Anjou and Maine. A year later, he married Eleanor of Aquitaine, a woman who was 11 years older than him.

Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204); she had been previously married to King Louis VII of France

Her dowry was huge: the entire Duchy of Aquitaine. In 1153, Henry managed to achieve his main goal. King Stephen agreed to a treaty with the young Duke. So, both parties signed the Treaty of Winchester (1153); Stephen would remain King of England, but upon his death, Henry would succeed him. In the late autumn of 1154, King Stephen I fell ill and died, and Henry finally became king. Upon his succession, Henry became the ruler of the Angevin Empire.

The Angevin Empire

No sooner had ''The Anarchy'' ended, that another revolt started. In 1155, Geoffrey, Henry's younger brother, initiated a revolt in France. He wanted some French possessions to be handed to him, now that his brother had become king. Eventually, Henry made Geoffrey the new Count of Nantes, thus ending the revolt. Furthermore, Henry appointed one Thomas Becket as Lord Chancellor of England. Becket was a protégé of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Theobald of Beck, and he was recommended to Henry and he quickly became an indispensable part of his government. 

Thomas Becket with King Henry II

Henry II had 8 legitimate children. Surprisingly, all but one reached adulthood. Overall, Henry had 5 sons and 3 daughters, 2 of his sons being the future kings Richard the Lionheart and John Lackland 

Regarding his government, Henry's reforms created an efficient centralized bureaucracy and tackled corruption among state officials. In terms of taxation, he increased the rates payable based on a knight's service from as early as 1166. He also financed the construction of many important public buildings, such as a house for lepers in Caen, France. In 1162, Thomas Becket became the Archbishop of Canterbury, the highest ecclesiastical position in England. Back then, England was still a Catholic nation, and Becket theoretically had to answer to the Pope only. However, Henry hoped that he could Becket as his personal pawn to expand his influence over the church. It was a bad move. Becket started to criticize the king's policies almost immediately after he became the Archbishop. As a result, two good friends quickly developed a bitter rivalry. Seeing that his plan was not working, Henry changed his approach. In 1164, he presided over a synod which passed the Constitutions of Clarendon, which sought to reduce clerical independence. However, Becket resisted the Constitutions, so the king imposed a series of financial penalties. In response, Becket fled to Flanders. In 1170, a Papal brokered-peace between Becket and Henry was reached. It would not last for too long. 

Becket's return to England in December 1170

On the afternoon of December 29th, 1170, four knights entered Canterbury Cathedral and murdered Thomas Becket 

Henry II's reign also marked the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland (1169-1171)

The murder of Becket soured the relations between England and Papacy. Pope Alexander III canonized Becket in 1173 and he threatened Henry with excommunication, but the latter managed to avoid it. While one catastrophe had been averted, another one appeared. In 1172, Henry the Young, Henry's legal successor, grew restless of his father and he started a civil war. Moreover, his younger brothers supported him; but Henry emerged victorious, once again. Henry and his brothers conceded to their father, while their mother Eleanor was arrested for conspiracy against the king.

Henry the Younger (1155-1183); He was Henry II's heir but he died before him

In 1175, the king sought an annulment of his marriage from the Papacy. The move was criticized by his sons, and Pope Alexander III rejected the claim. Seeking to alleviate his children, Henry granted duchies to govern to each one of them, except for Henry the Younger who received no territory. During his final years of reign, Henry II was at war with France. Philip II, son of Louis VII, had big territorial ambitions and this wasn't good news for the Angevin Empire. After a series of battles and short parleys, King Henry II of England died at the age of 56, in 1189, and he was buried in the abbey of Fontevraud, in the County of Anjou. His son Richard was crowned king two months later, but he would not enjoy peaceful time. In January 1190, he set off for the Holy Land to reconquer Jerusalem in what has become known as ''The Third Crusade''.

 Highgate Cemetery

Highgate Cemetery was one of the earliest privately run garden cemeteries in England. Until the 19th century most burials had taken place in Anglican churchyards, but by the 1820s there had become so overcrowded and unsanitary that a new solution had to be found. Birth and mortality escalated and the Industrial Revolution increased the migration from rural areas towards the cities. For instance, London had slightly below 1 million people, in 1801. However, by 1841, the population had doubled already. The daily death rate was 125 people. Furthermore, the 1831 epidemic of cholera struck in, resulting in excessive deaths. 

''Body snatching'' was another major concern

Entrepreneurial businessmen were quick to offer attractive commercial solutions to the problems of burying London's dead. Highgate Cemetery was the flagship project of the London Cemetery Company, a joint-stock company founded by Stephen Geary (1797-1854), a prominent architect and entrepreneur who was known for a much-derided monument of George IV erected in Gray's Inn Road. The cemetery was the third of London's great commercial cemeteries, after Kensal Green in 1833 and West Norwood in 1837. The London Cemetery Company paid £3,500 for the elevated 17-acre (7 ha) site on the slopes of Highgate Hill and calculated that there was room for 30,000 graves. 

Highgate (East) Cemetery 

On 20 May 1839, the cemetery was consecrated for the use of Church of England members by the Bishop of London, the Right Reverend Charles James Blomfield. Highgate Cemetery is divided in two: The West Cemetery and the East Cemetery. The western part has the Egyptian Avenue and the Circle of Lebanon and is characterized by elaborate feature tombs, vaults and winding paths into hillsides.

Entrance to the Egyptian Avenue 

Circle of Lebanon

In the East Cemetery many famous and prominent people are buried; the most famous of which is arguably that of Karl Marx. 

Tomb of Karl Marx

Additionally, there are 318 graves of the Commonwealth service personnel, 259 being from the First World War and 59 from the Second World War.

 Temple Church

The Temple Church was built by Knights Templar, an order of knights who took monastic vows. The Templars were founded in 1118 to protect pilgrims to the Holy Land; they become one of the most powerful orders in Christendom. In London, Templars had their church, two halls, cloisters and domestic buildings.

Temple Church

In 1185, the Round Church was consecrated; it represents the transition from Norman architecture to Gothic. It was modelled on the circular Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the site of Christ's death, burial and rising. 

Flags used by the Templars in battle

The effigies of the Round include the figure William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke (1146-1219). He was one of the most famous knights of his time, serving under various English kings, from Henry II to Henry III. He was also a crucial meditator between King John and the barons, and Regent for the child King Henry III. His eldest son William (1190-1231) and his third son Gilbert (1194-1241) were both buried nearby. 

The interior of the Round Church

Back to King John, his reign witnessed a long struggle for power between the Crown and the barons. A deputation from the barons had met the King at the Temple itself, in January 1215, to demand the confirmation of ancient laws and liberties. The King soon reneged on the agreement. He finally put his seal to Magna Carta, the first bill of rights, at Runnymede in June 1215. 

Tomb effigy of William Marshal in Temple Church, London

In the 1230s King Henry III and his Queen bequeathed their bodies to the Temple Church, but they were eventually buried in Westminster Abbey. On Friday 13 October 1307 every Templar in France was arrested on the orders of King Philip the Fair. He accused the order of blasphemy and heresy. It is not clear if these charges were real, but we know for sure that France was debt and the Templar had enough financial resources. 

King Philip the Fair (1285-1314)

In England, King Edward II disbelieved the charges, but he was forced, under Papal pressure, to deprive the Order of all its estates in England, including the Temple Church which was passed to the Knights Hospitaller. In the 16th century, during the Reformation, it reverted to the Crown. In 1608, King James I granted all the Templars' former land between Fleet Street and the river to the societies of Inner and Middle Temple, two of the London's Inns of Court. 

Combined arms of the four Inns of Court. These are the four professional associations for barristers in England and Wales

He also stipulated that the Inns should serve for the accommodation and education of those studying and following the profession of law. The Inns have remained, ever since, central to the legal and ethical formation of the barristers of England and Wales. 

 Charles I

Charles was born on the 19th November, 1600, at Dunfermline Palace in Scotland. He was the son of King James VI of Scotland and Queen Anne. In 1603, Queen Elizabeth I died, and as a result, his father, who was a descendent of King Henry VII, the grandfather of Elizabeth, became King of England as James I.

Engraving of Charles and his parents, King James and Queen Anne

 Portrait of Charles, c.1611 

In 1612, Henry, his elder brother, died, thus making Charles the heir apparent to the throne. From now on, the young man would be taught how to became an effective ruler. Furthermore, a future king needs a wife to further his bloodline. So, King James I embarked on a mission to find a suitable bride for his son. The first option was Infanta Maria Anna of Spain, the daughter of King Philip III of Spain. The negotiations began in the early 1620s. 

Henry Frederick (1594-1612); He was the elder brother of Charles

Maria Anna of Spain (1606-1646)

King Philip III of Spain (1598-1621)

The match was pursued for many reasons. Spain and England had just ended a war in 1604, and they hoped the marriage would create a powerful alliance between the two kingdoms. King James also hoped that the marriage would come with a substantial dowry, since Spain had the largest and the wealthiest colonial empire in the world. However, the negotiations failed, and the relations between the two nations soured.

On the 27th of March, 1625 King James I died, and Charles became the King of England, Scotland and Ireland. No sooner had he been crowned, he started a war with Spain. The second Anglo-Spanish War brought no gains for England and it was a financial disaster. Meanwhile, Charles was married by proxy to the 15-year-old French princess Henrietta Maria, in front of the doors of Notre Dame de Paris. 

Queen Henrietta Maria; she was the daughter of King Henry IV of France and sister of King Louis XIII of France 

The marriage was very successful with the two being fond of each other. They had 9 children. But, there were problems. Henrietta was a staunch Catholic, and the influence of her Catholic courtiers over Charles was quite alarming. Furthermore, Charles asked Parliament for more money to finance his war against Spain. In order to bypass the Parliament, Charles used martial law and other royal prerogatives to secure enough funds. In 1628, the Parliament adopted a Petition of Right, calling upon Charles to acknowledge that he could not levy taxes without Parliament's consent. 

Petition of Right (1628); It has equal value to Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689

On 23 August 1628, the Duke of Buckingham was assassinated. He was one of the most important advisors of Charles and upon hearing the news, the king was furious. Having already lost a supporter and a friend and with a growing parliamentary opposition against him, Charles decided to dissolve the Parliament and started a period of self-governing known as the ''Personal Rule''. He also signed a peace treaty with Spain in 1630.

George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham (1592-1628)

Even though he had total control, the king needed the Parliament to raise taxes. So, he relied on a series of obsolete taxes levied during the Middle Ages, such as ship money, which were more unpopular. Moreover, he created a clique of people loyal to him to govern the country. William Laud was appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1633. Along with Laud, the king attempted to create a new version of Protestantism in England called Arminianism, in which both churches of England and Scotland would be united into a single one. This proved to be another controversial decision, which drew criticism from the Puritans, the Radical Protestants. 

William Laud (1573-1645); Archbishop of Canterbury 

King Charles I, c.1636

In 1639, the Scottish Presbyterians revolted against the king's religious reforms. The First Bishops' War had started. The result was a stalemate, and after a short peace, the Second Bishops' War erupted in which the Scots won and managed to occupy the North of England. The Treaty of Ripon was signed, and Charles agreed to pay the Scots £850 per day. Lacking funds, Charles swallowed his pride and summoned a new Parliament, in 1640. During a speech in the House of Commons, John Pym, an MP for Tavistock, expressed the refusal to vote for subsidies unless royal abuses were addressed. After three weeks, Charles dissolved what is now called the ''Short Parliament''.

John Pym (1584-1643)

In the autumn of 1640, he had to summon another Parliament which would last until 1660, earning its nickname the ''Long Parliament''. This time, the king appeared to be more open to concessions but the MPs did not buy it. Furthermore, the Parliament impeached Thomas Wentworth, the Earl of Strafford, one of Charles' supporters. He was found guilty of high treason and executed.  

Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford (1593-1641)

By 1642, Charles had had enough. On January 4th, he entered the House of Commons, accompanied by armed soldiers, to arrest the most important members of the opposition, including John Pym. Unfortunately, they were not there, so many MPs who were still open to negotiations turned against the king. Eventually, Charles fled London and began raising his forces, thus starting the First English Civil War. The Parliament did not remain idle either and it assembled its own army. In 1643, the Parliament secured an alliance with Scotland. In 1644 and 1645, the Royalist forces lost the battles of Marston Moor and Naseby. Charles was left without an army, so he surrendered himself to the Scots but the latter handed him over to the Parliament. The king was put on trial before a High Court of Justice and found guilty of treason. He was executed on January 30th, 1649. 

King Charles at his trial

Britain was for the first time in its history without a monarch. In 1649, the Commonwealth of England was established, but it did not last long. In 1660, Charles II, son of Charles I, was restored as King of England, Scotland and Ireland. 

Gunpowder Plot 

(1605)

The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was a failed conspiracy by a group of English Catholics to assassinate King James I of England and blow up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament. 

A contemporary engraving of eight of thirteen conspirators

King James VI/I

The plot was born out of a complex mix of religious, political, and social factors. England had undergone a series of religious conflicts and changes during the 16th century, leading to the establishment of the Church of England as a separate entity from the Roman Catholic Church. The country was predominantly Protestant, and Catholics faced discrimination and restrictions under the reign of King James I. As a result, dissatisfaction rose and a desire for greater religious tolerance grew among the English Catholics. 

The main figure behind the plot was Robert Catesby, a devout Catholic who felt that violent action was necessary to protect the interests of Catholics. He recruited a group of conspirators, which included Guy Fawkes, Thomas Percy, John Wright, Thomas Wintour, and others. Fawkes was given the task of actually igniting the gunpowder beneath the House of Lords.

Robert Catesby (1572-1605)

Guy Fawkes (1570-1605)

The primary purpose of the plot was to assassinate King James I and other Protestant leaders by detonating barrels of gunpowder hidden in the cellars beneath the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament on November 5, 1605. The conspirators hoped that this act would cripple the Protestant government and pave the way for a Catholic uprising that would eventually restore them to power in England. 

Unfortunately, the plot was foiled on the night of November 4-5, 1605, when an anonymous letter was sent to William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle, a Catholic nobleman, warning him to stay away from Parliament. 

The letter sent to Monteagle 

The letter was then passed on to authorities, leading to a search of the cellars beneath the House of Lords. Guy Fawkes was discovered guarding the barrels of gunpowder and was subsequently arrested. The others were arrested too, and then tried and executed for treason. Guy Fawkes and several other key figures were executed by hanging, drawing and quartering in January 1606. Furthermore, the plot led to more persecutions and discrimination of the English Catholics.  

The execution of the conspirators

James VI of Scotalnd/I of England

 James VI of Scotland/ I of England

King James was born on 19th of June, 1566, at Edinburgh Castle, Scotland. He was the son of Queen Mary of Scotland and Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley. 

 

Young James 

Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley (1546-1567); James's father. 

Mary, Queen of Scotland (1542-1567); James's mother

During the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation was taking place across Western Europe. Scotland was not exempted either. In 1560, John Knox, a Protestant minister, established what is known as the Church of Scotland. On the other hand, the House of Stuart, the ruling dynasty, was Catholic. In 1567, Lord Darnley was found dead and many nobles accused Queen Mary of killing him. Three months later, she got married to James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, thus proving, in some people's opinions, that she had been involved in the assassination of James's father. In the end, her mother was forced to abdicate in favor of her one-year-old son. She managed to flee to England, but she ended up being beheaded in 1587.

John Knox (1514-1572)

Because James was still an infant, a minority government was established to rule in the King's name. The head of the government was James's half-uncle, James Stuart, 1st Lord of Moray. Meanwhile, the young King received a proper education for a monarch, one of his tutors being George Buchanan. 

James Stewart (1531-1570); he was assassinated by one the Queen Mary's supporters

In 1570, after Stewart's assassination, Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, became the new regent. However, he was also killed by one of the Queen's supporters, after a year and a half. As a result, John Erskine, 6th Earl of Mar, became the new regent, but he would die of illness in 1572. The next regent was James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton and he proved to be the most successful of the four. His policies managed to bring back political stability in Scotland. As for King James, he continued to be raised at Stirling Castle. 

Matthew Stewart (1516-1571)

John Erskine (d.1572)

James Douglas (1516-1581)

Thanks to the tutors appointed by the government, young James became one of the most educated kings in Europe. He learned to read and write in Latin, Scots, French and Greek. It is worth mentioning that despite being baptized as a Catholic, he received a Protestant education. In 1579, James, now 13 years old, was proclaimed an adult ruler in a ceremony held in Edinburgh. In 1581, James Douglas was executed and James appointed Esme Stewart, his first cousin, the new head of the government. Furthermore, Esme was elevated to the title of Earl of Lennox

Esme Stewart, Earl of Lennox (1542-1583)

His influence over James worried the Scottish Lords. Despite being a Protestant convert, he had Franco-Catholic background, which was not seen with good eyes by many nobles. So, they began conspiring. In 1582, in what became known as Ruthven Raid, the Protestant earls of Gowrie and Angus lured the king into Ruthven Castle, imprisoned him, and forced Lennox to leave Scotland. A year later, James was released and he made it clear that he wanted to govern personally without the influence of other lords.
 

James VI of Scotland, in 1583

He started by curtailing the power of the lords but this was not an easy task. Following decades of political instability, the Scottish noblemen had became very influential and they had imposed a monopoly on the government. Eventually, he succeeded in establishing effective royal governance and relative peace among the lords, ably assisted by John Maitland of Thirlestane, who James appointed the Lord Chancellor of Scotland. A commission formed of eight men known as the Octavians brought some control over the ruinous state of Scotland's finances in 1596. 

John Maitland (1537-1595)

In 1586, England and Scotland signed the Treaty of Berwick. As part of the agreement, James received an annual subsidy from the English government. In return, Scotland offered to provide military aid to England in case of a foreign invasion. But, there was another vested interest of the Scottish king. Queen Elizabeth I of England was in her 50s and childless. As a result, the Tudor dynasty would have ceased to exist upon her death. Meanwhile, James was the great-grandson of Margaret Tudor, sister of King Henry VIII, Elizabeth's father. So, now with a queen without any legitimate heirs, James became her most likely successor. In 1589, James married Anne of Denmark. Despite being known as gay, James needed children to secure his line of succession. The couple had 6 children, but only 2 reached adulthood. In 1603, Queen Elizabeth I died and without any other pretenders, the crown passed to James VI of Scotland, from now on also James I of England. 

King James I of England c.1605

Even though the transition of power was a smooth process, there was still opposition. In his first year of reign, he survived both the Bye Plot and Main Plot. Leaving the day-to-day running of the government to his experienced ministers, James attempted to unify his two kingdoms. After his coronation as King of England, both Scotland and England were united in a personal union in which despite having the same monarch, they still had their own governments, boundaries and laws. In foreign affairs, James pursued a peace policy and tried to avoid involvement in religious wars, such as the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). 

Treaty of London (1604), which ended the Anglo-Spanish War

King James c.1621

In his last years, James suffered increasingly from arthritis, gout and kidney stones. In 1625, he fell seriously ill in March and suffered a stroke. He died on 27 March, 1625 at Theobalds House, Hertfordshire.