Plantagenet Kings

 Edward III

King Edward III was born on November 13th, 1312 in Windsor Castle, Berkshire. He was the oldest son of King Edward II and Isabella of France, thus he was the heir to throne. 

King Edward III (1312-1377)

Edward II is remembered by all sources as a weak and incompetent king, who was always under the influence of either Pier Gaveston or Hugh Despenser. These favourites angered the nobles and his wife, and as result, a civil war broke out in 1321 between the king and the baronial opposition. In 1325, Queen Isabella left for France along with young Prince Edward. She joined Roger Mortimer, a Welsh lord who had rebelled against the king before. Isabella and Roger became lovers and they started to raise an army. They managed to secure financial support from William the I, Count of Hainault, on the condition young Edward would wed his daughter, Phillipa. 

 

William I, Count of Hainault (1286-1337), Edward III's father-in-law. 

Phillipa of Hainault (1310/1315-1369); Edward III's wife

In 1326, Isabella and Mortimer invaded England. Left without allies, King Edward III abandoned London just to be caught in South Wales. He died a year later while he was imprisoned. As a result, his son was crowned as King Edward III. Being a minor, his early reign was dominated by Isabella and her lover. In 1330, Edward managed to consolidate his power by having Roger Mortimer executed and his mother put under house arrest. At the same time, his first son, Edward the Black Prince, was born. In 1333, Edward supported Edward Balliol, son of the former Scottish King John Balliol, against King David II, son of Robert the Bruce, who was still a minor. The English army defeated the Scots at the Battle of Halidon Hill, and David was forced to leave for France. 

King David II of Scotland (1324-1371; reigned 1329-1371)

Scotland and France were traditional allies, but Edward had another strategy. His maternal grandfather was King Philip IV of France. When he died in 1314, his son Louis X followed him, but he died in 1316 without heirs. So, his younger brother Philip V ascended to the throne, but he died in 1322 without a male heir too and the throne was passed to Charles IV, the youngest son of Philip IV, who also died in 1328 without any male heirless as well, thus ending the Capetian Dynasty. Eventually, Philip VI of Valois, whose father was the younger brother of King Philip IV, became King of France. 

The Salic Law prevented women from inheriting the French Crown

Edward III accepted the succession at first, but when Philip confiscated the English Duchy of Aquitaine in 1337, he responded by laying claim to the French as the grandson of King Philip IV. However, the French nobles rejected this based on the precedents for agnatic succession in 1316 and 1322. As a result, the Anglo-French conflict known as the 100 Years War had begun. The first phase of the war (1337-1360) was a huge success for England. The French lost several major battles at Sluys (1340), Crecy (1346), and Poitiers (1356). The treaty of Bretigny (1360) forced France to give up many lands to English and pay war reparations. 

Battle of Sluys (1340)-> English naval victory

Battle of Crecy (1346)-> English decisive victory

Battle of Poitiers (1356)-> English decisive victory

King John II of France (1319-1364; reigned 1350-1364). He was captured at Poitiers by the English and the French government had to ransom him

Edward the Black Prince (1330-1376), Edward's eldest son and heir. He commanded the English army at the Battle of Poitiers where he won an astounding victory. He died before his father so he never became king.

English territorial gains (pink) after the Treaty of Bretigny (1360)

Meanwhile, David II returned to Scotland in 1346, but he was decisively defeated and captured at the Battle of Neville's Cross. He would spent 11 years in England as prisoner; in 1357, England and Scotland signed the Treaty of Berwick after which David II was released and recognized as King of Scotland by Edward. In 1369, King Charles V of France, son John II, resumed the war with England and reconquered all the lands lost by his father. In 1376, Edward the Black Prince died, followed by King Edward III a year later.

Tomb of Edward the Black Prince at Canterbury Cathedral

Richard, son of the Black Prince and grandson of Edward III, became King Richard II of England.

Plantagenet Kings

Edward II 

King Edward II was born April 25th, 1284. He was the son of King Edward I and Eleanor of Castille. Being born at Caernarfon Castle in Wales, he was given the title Lord of Caernarfon. Moreover, he had 3 elder brothers, so it was very unlikely that he would ever become king.

King Edward II (1284-1327; reigned 1307-1327)

However, all of his brothers had died by the time Edward reached adulthood. In 1301, young Edward accompanied his father in a campaign in Scotland. In 1307, Edward I ''Longshanks'' passed away after a long reign of 35 years. Before his death, Edward I exiled Piers Gaveston, his son's best friend, whose influence on Edward II had become problematic. The decision was an emotional blow for the young prince. Despite resembling his father's physical appearances, King Edward II had a different personality. He liked neither waging wars nor jousting, and he preferred the company of jesters and commoners instead of nobles. 

Piers Gaveston (1284-1312), 1st Earl of Cornwall; he was Edward's friend since childhood, and it was rumoured that the 2 were in a homosexual relationship, but it has never been proved

His first major action as King would infuriate the great Earls. A month after his coronation, Edward II gave the Earldom of Cornwall to Piers Gaveston. In 1308, Edward got married. His wife was Isabella of France, daughter of King Philip IV of France, who had been promised to him since 1303. In 1312, their first son, future King Edward III, was born.

Isabella of France (1295-1358). She was the daughter of King Philip IV of France

King Philip IV of France (1268-1314; reigned 1285-1314). After the Anglo-French War (1294-1303), Philip IV and Edward I signed the Treaty of Paris (1303) in which it was agreed that Edward II would marry Isabella when they would both come of age.

Over the next years, the influence of Gaveston increased significantly, as both the Earls and the Queen plotted to remove him from the Royal Court. Eventually, in the face of a growing opposition, Edward II accepted to sent Gaveston into exile in Aquitaine in 1308, but he then changed his mind, and instead he sent Gaveston to Ireland, as Lord Lieutenant. In 1309, he managed to convince the Earls to let Gaveston return home to England. Meanwhile in Scotland, King Robert the Bruce expelled the English from his realms and the Northern lords asked for a punitive expedition. In 1310, Edward led an army into Scotland, but he achieved little success and he returned back to England the next year. In England, the Lords Ordainers, a council of 21 Lords, signed the Ordinances of 1311, a series of reforms whose main aim was limiting the King's authority to go to war or to grant lands without Parliament's approval, but the Ordinances exiled Gaveston once more. Edward reluctantly agreed the document but the tensions remained, and as a result, the King decided to revoke the Ordinances and called Gaveston back in early 1312. The Earls were furious, so they decided to act. They found out that Gaveston was at Scarborough Castle and they surrounded the settlement. After the a brief siege, Gaveston surrendered and he was taken into custody by the Earl of Lancaster and Earl of Warwick. Even though he was granted a fair trial, Gaveston was thrown in jail and then beheaded. 

Gaveston's head shown to the Earl of Lancaster

King Edward was furious and sought to avenge the death of his favourite. In order to avoid an execution, the Earls who were involved in the murder of Gaveston agreed to provide financial support for another English military expedition in Scotland in 1314. At the Battle of Bannockburn, the Scots won a decisive victory against the English. To make the matter worse, the harsh winters and wet summers affected a great portion of the arable land of England, thus causing the Great Famine of 1315-1317. 

Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn (1314)

A new favourite:

Hugh Despenser ''the Younger'', was the husband of Eleanor de Clare, daughter of Gilbert de Clare and Joan of Acre, sister of Edward II. 

Hugh Despenser (1287-1326)

Like his father, he became Chamberlain and a close advisor of King Edward II in 1318, and he started accumulating more lands in the Welsh Marches and in England. His growing influence at the Court angered the nobles and Queen Isabella, so they once again allied to remove him. In 1321, Hugh and his father went into exile. King Edward II was furious and the civil war known as the Despenser War broke out.

Roger Mortimer (1287-1330), 1st Earl of the March. He was, along with Queen Isabella, the leading figure of the baronial opposition against Hugh Despenser. Later, he and Isabella became lovers.

In 1322, the Royalist won a decisive victory at the Battle of Boroughbridge. As a result, Hugh Despenser was called back to England, while Roger Mortimer was imprisoned in the Tower of London. In 1323, Mortimer escaped captivity and fled to France. Queen Isabella joined him two years later, during her journey to France to pay homage to Charles IV, her brother. Isabella refused to return to England and he and Mortimer started to raise an army. Charles IV didn't provide any financial support, so the lovers travelled to the Holy Roman Empire. In the end, William I, Count of Hainaut, accepted to help them on the condition that the young Prince Edward would marry his daughter Philippa.

William I, Count of Hainaut (1286-1337)

In the autumn of 1326, Isabella and Mortimer landed in England, and they were quickly joined by their English allies. Seeing that he was in a vulnerable position, Edward abandoned London. He was captured a month later in South Wales, and imprisoned. He finally died on September 21st, 1327, at Berkeley Castle probably assassinated by the orders of his wife Isabella and Roger Mortimer. His son followed him as King Edward III. As for his favourites, the Despensers, they were sentenced to death. 

Plantagenet Kings

 Edward I

King Edward I was born on June 17th, 1239. He was the son of King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence. 

King Edward I of England (1239-1307; reigned 1272-1307); he was named Edward because his father was a huge fan of the Anglo-Saxon king Edward the Confessor

Young Edward had a tough childhood, suffering from many illnesses. As a result, he was considered so weak that many believed that he would not outlive his father. However, he grew up into an unusually tall and robust teenager. In fact, for his unusual height of 6.2 feet, he earned his famous nickname ''Longshanks''. Furthermore, differences in character between Edward and Henry became more noticeable. While Henry was a very pious man, his son was energetic and had a volcanic temperament, leading to many arguments between the two. In 1258, a group of nobles, who were unhappy with King Henry's policies and the influence of the King's half-brothers, the Lusignans, drew up a document known as the Provisions of Oxford which proposed a series of reforms of the royal government. 

Simon de Montfort (1208-1265); he was King Henry III's brother-in-law and he supported the Provisions of Oxford

Edward sided with the nobles, thus souring his relationship with his father. Eventually, Henry secured the support of the Papacy and he repealed the Provisions of Oxford. This was not without consequences, and Barons led by Simon de Montfort rebelled against the King, in 1264. The Second Barons' War had  begun. Prince Edward, who had reconciled with Henry, supported his father in the conflict. The two armies met at the Battle of Lewes (1264). The rebels won a shocking victory which led to the imprisonment of both Henry and Edward. Montfort, being the de facto ruler of England, established a Protectorate ruled by Parliament. In 1265, Edward escaped captivity, and assembled a new army in order to release his father. At the Battle of Evesham (1265), Edward won a decisive victory; Simon de Montfort died on the battlefield, while King Henry III was released shortly afterwards. 

Eleanor of Castile (1241-1290); she was the first wife of Edward I; they got married in 1254, and they were both devout to each other, and they had 7 children

14th century manuscript depicting King Edward I with his wife Eleanor

In 1268, King Louis IX of France called for a Crusade in North Africa with the aim of conquering the city of Tunis. Edward joined the Crusade, in 1270, but when he arrived in Tunisia, King Louis had already died of dysentery. Becoming the commander-in-chief of the army, Edward decided to retreat to Sicily and then he set sail to the Holy Land. He achieved little successes her, but he managed to secure the city-port of Acre from the hands of the Egyptian Mamluks, in 1271. In 1272, upon his return from the Holy Land, Edward was given the news that his father had died. He was officially crowned King Edward I on August 19th, 1274, at Westminster Abbey. During his early reign, Edward focused primarily on streamlining and reforming the administration of his government. Between 1277 and 1283, he completed the conquest of all Wales; in 1290, his wife, Eleanor, died. The King was completely distraught at the loss of his wife. He became a hardened man in the wake of the loss, more bitter and brooding in nature. 

Imagine of King Edward I

His military campaigns in Wales were very expensive and imposed huge financial burdens upon the nation. The main source of income was taxation and a particular group in England was taxed far more heavily than others: the Jews. After a series of persecutions against the Jewish community, Edward issued the Edict of Expulsion (1290) by which all Jews were expelled from England. The ban was lifted in 1656.

The Scottish Problem:

In 1286, King Alexander III of Scotland died. Having no male heirs, the crown was passed to his daughter, Margaret, who was also the grand-daughter of Edward. Seeing an opportunity, Edward suggested that Margaret and Edward of Caernarfon, Edward's eldest son, should be united in marriage. 

Alexander III of Scotland (1241-1286; reigned 1249-1286); his death without a male hier would spark a succession crisis 

Unfortunately, Margaret died too, and many Scottish nobles claimed the crown. The English King was asked to play the role of arbitrator, and he agreed on the condition that the claimant accept him as his overlord. In 1292, he awarded the throne to John Balliol, who became the new King of Scotland. However, John rebelled against Edward and gathered his forces in March 1296. The Scots were defeated and John was thrown into the Tower of London. Scotland was once again kingless.

John Balliol (1249-1312; reigned 1292-1296)

In order to absorb Scotland into his kingdom, Edward demanded oaths of fealty from all Scottish nobles, Any who refused to do so were hunted down as outlaws. Being confident that he secured his northern flank, Edward turned his attention to France, which had recently allied with Scotland. Meanwhile, a new uprising started in Scotland, led by a man called William Wallace. In 1297, Wallace won a resounding victory at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. He then crossed the border and plundered the North of England.

William Wallace (1270-1305)

Edward, who was fighting the French in Flanders, decided to handle the situation personally. In 1298, he marched North with 17,000 men. The two armies met at Falkirk where the English won. Wallace managed to avoid being captured and he went into hiding. In 1305, Wallace was finally captured by the English and he was taken to London where he was hanged, drawn and quartered. A year later, Robert the Bruce killed all his rivals and crowned himself King of Scotland. 

Robert the Bruce (1274-1329; reigned 1306-1329). He is regarded as one of the greatest kings Scotland has ever had 

King Edward gathered his army once again, and marched North. However, on July 7th, 1307, he contracted dysentery and died. He was buried at Westminster Abbey. His son Edward became the new King of England as Edward II.

Plantagenet Kings

 Henry III

Henry was born on the 1st of October, 1207, in Winchester Castle. He was the son of King John I of England and Queen Isabella of Angouleme. There are little records of his early years. 

King John I of England (1166-1216; reigned 1199-1216)

Queen Isabella of Angouleme (1186-1248)

Head of the effigy of Peter des Roches (d.1238); he was the Bishop of Winchester and Henry's tutor. Furthermore, Henry acquire his piety from him

By 1214, England had been in a crisis. King John lost most of his possessions in France, including Normandy and the County of Anjou. Moreover, the Feudal Barons of Northern England rebelled against the King. As a result, John met with the Barons at Runnymede, where he signed the Great Charter (Magna Carta) where the King of England acknowledged his limitations of power. However, John declared the document null, 3 months later. The First Barons' Revolt had started. In a surprising move, the rebels declared prince Louis of France, the eldest son of King Philip of France, the new King of England. In October 1216, King John I died and Henry, age 9, became King of England. Upon hearing the news, the Barons switched sides and supported the young king. As for Louis, he was defeated in battle and forced to leave England. 

Prince Louis of France (1187-1226); despite failing to become King of England, he would become King of France after his father's death, in 1223

As a minor, Henry couldn't rule the kingdom. So, a regency government, led by William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke, was established to govern in his name. In 1219, Marshal died, and a triumvirate followed. By 1223, the English Crown had reasserted its position and quelled all the rebellions. In 1227, King Henry III summoned his nobles at Oxford where he declared that he was full of age and intended to rule in his own right. 

Hugh de Burgh, Earl of Kent (1170-1243); he became the head of the regency government after Marshal's death; he was removed by Henry III in 1232

In 1236, Henry married Eleanor of Provence. 3 years later, his firstborn son, Edward, was born. In 1240 and 1242, 2 more daughters were born. In foreign affairs, Henry and King Alexander II of Scotland signed the Treaty of York (1237), which ended the border dispute between England and Scotland. In 1238, Richard of Cornwall, Henry's younger brother, rebelled, but Henry used diplomacy to avoid bloodshed. In 1240, Henry provided 16,000 marks to Richard in order to join a Crusade into the Holy Land. In 1242, in an another attempt to reclaim the English lost lands in France, Henry III started a war. Known as the Saintonge War, it was a military disaster for England. 

Richard of Cornwall (1209-1272); Henry III's younger brother and King of the Germans (1257-1272)

In the 1250's, Henry's policies were very unpopular among his subjects. Moreover, the influence of his half-brothers, the Lusignans, had increased significantly. As a result, nobles forced the king to accept the Provisions of Oxford, in 1258. Henry was not with the situation, and he started looking for allies abroad. In 1259, France and England signed the Treaty of Paris, in which England gave up its territorial claims in France. In return, France recognized Gascony as part of England and provided financial and diplomatic support for Henry against his barons. 

Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester (1208-1265); He was the brother-in-law of King Henry III; he was the leader of the baronial opposition against Henry and he supported the implementations of the Provisions of Oxford. He was exiled in 1263, but he returned 2 years, thus starting the Second Barons' Revolt

After he secured the alliance, Henry annulled the Provisions of Oxford. As a result, the Barons led by Montfort, rebelled in 1264. At the Battle of Lewes, the rebel forces won a shocking victory against the royalists, and they captured both Henry and his heir, Prince Edward. Shortly after, Montfort established a Protectorate ruled by a parliament. While the king remained the head of state, Montfort was the de facto ruler of England. In 1265, Edward managed to flee captivity, and begun assembling an army. At the Battle of Evesham, Edward won a decisive victory. King Henry was released and Montfort died on the battlefield. In 1266, Henry issued the Dictum of Kenilworth which indicated that the former rebels would be treated leniently, while the Statute of Marlborough (1267) formalized this agreement, thus bringing the Second Barons' War to its conclusion. 

Eventually, the king fell ill in 1272, and died shortly at the age of 65.  

Magna Carta

 Magna Carta (1215)

808 years go, King John I of England sealed the Great Charter in front of his barons who rebelled against him. It was for the first time in history when a king admitted that he was not above the law and it was for the first time when the rights of individual citizens against the abuse of the state were recognized. 

King John of England (1166-1215; reigned 1199-1215)

The year was 1215. England had been ruled by King John for the last 16 years, but there were problems. Apart from being the King of England, John also inherited all the English possessions in France, which along with England are known today as the Angevin Empire. However, by 1214, King Philip of France had expelled the English from France. This loss of lands was not without consequences. Furthermore, this wars waged by John needed money. As a result, he levied draconian taxes on his subjects, especially the wealthiest ones known as the Barons. Eventually, the Barons of England had had enough and they decided to rebel against their King. Seeing that he had few allies left, King John agreed to enter negotiations with them. The two factions met at the a place called Runnymede, in June, 1215. On June 15, 1215, the King signed the Great Charter. 

King John signed the Great Charter at Runnymede (1215)

Runnymede; the place where Magna Carta was sealed 

It was a major turning point not only for England, but for the entire history. Magna Carta encapsulated the struggle for rights at one moment. Overall, the charter had 63 clauses; clause 39 states that ''no free man shall be sized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled, or deprived of his standing in any way, nor will we proceed with force against him, or send others to do so, except by the lawful judgement of his equals or by the law of the land''. However, not all people in medieval England were considered free men. According to Domesday Book, in 1086, in England there were slightly less than 40,000 free men. On the other hand, there were more than 200,000 villeins and servi. 

Furthermore, the charter promised the protection of church rights, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown. A council of 25 barons, which is considered by many to be the first Parliament of England, was chosen to implement these measures. Unfortunately, neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons' War. In 1216, King John died, and his son, King Henry III, reissued the charter again. Eventually, the war ended in 1217 with the Treaty of Lambeth, in which the charter was part of the agreement. Throughout his reign, Henry III reissued Magna Carta multiple times in exchange for a grant of taxes. In 1297, King Edward I confirmed the charter as part of England's statute law. 

Pope Innocent III (1161-1216) considered the first issue of the charter too radical and he annulled it

Despite losing its popularity in the next centuries, Magna Carta experienced an upsurge in interest in the 17th century. Sir Edward Coke used Magna Carta extensively in the 1600's, arguing against the divine right of kings. 

James VI of Scotland/ I of England (1566-1625) was a staunch believer in the divine right of kings

King Charles I of England (1600-1649; reigned 1625-1649), James' son, believed as well in his divine right; his attempt to obstruct Parliament lead to the English Civil Wars (1642-1649)

Moreover, the myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties influenced the American colonists and the formation of the United States Constitution. 

Plantagenet Kings

 King John I

John was born on Christmas Eve, 1166, at the royal palace in Oxford. He was the youngest son of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. Having 3 elder brothers, it would have been very unlikely for the young prince to become king. However, by 1186, 2 of his brothers had died, thus leaving John and Richard the only 2 male heirs of King Henry.

 

Tomb effigy of King John

The Angevin Empire, 1190

Because the relations between Henry and Richard soured, Henry started to consider John as his future successor. As a result, the latter allied with King Philip Augustus of France, and he forced his father to recognize him as his sole heir. In 1189, Richard was crowned King of England after Henry passed away. 

King Richard the Lionheart, John's brother

No sooner had he become king, Richard joined the 3rd Crusade in order to recapture Jerusalem which had been conquered in 1187 by Sultan Saladin. Richard established a regency government in England and named his 4-year-old nephew as heir. During the campaign, he took important cities in the Holy Land such as Acre and Jaffa, but he didn't conquer Jerusalem. However, he signed a peace treaty with Saladin, in which the Sultan allowed Christian pilgrimage into the city. Meanwhile, John allied with King Philip of France and took the throne of England. Upon hearing that, Richard went back home in a hurry, but he was arrested by the Holy Roman Emperor while crossing Germany. He spent 1 year in prison until a huge ransom was paid by his mother. Once released, he arrived in England where he retook control of his kingdom. John was not punished for his treachery and furthermore, he was made heir to the throne by his brother. Eventually, Richard went back to France to wage wars against the French. He died by an arrow in 1199 without any legitimate sons. 

King John 

Having the support of the English barons, John was crowned King at Westminster Abbey. On the other hand, the French nobles had another pretender for the crown, John's nephew, Arthur, Duke of Brittany. Seeing an opportunity, Philip of France decided to support the latter. In 1202, John defeated Arthur at Chateau de Mirabeau. Furthermore, Arthur was taken prisoner by his uncle and throw in jail. A year later, Arthur was assassinated. He was only 16 years old. Despite losing his ally, Philip of France managed to defeat the English armies, and as a result, he conquered Normandy, Anjou and Aquitaine. This was a huge blow for John's reputation, so he started to assemble an army in order to reclaim his possessions. Over the next 10 years, he levied a series of unpopular taxes throughout England which drew harsh criticism from the barons. In 1214, John allied with Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV against Philip. Unfortunately, the French army defeated the Imperials at the Battle of Bouvines and John's ambitions to restore his former empire crashed. 

 

Arthur, Duke of Brittany

King Philip II of France

The consequences of his failure were huge. In 1215, the English Barons from the North rebelled against the King because of the overtaxation. In a short time, they captured the city of London, and persuaded John to enter peace negotiations. The King met with the rebellious barons on the 15th June, 1215, at Runnymede, 20 miles west to London. The demands were simple: 

1. the barons wanted the guarantees of their rights and liberties under the law
2. the rights of the church to be respected by the King
3. protection from illegal imprisonment
4. fair justice system
5. the establishment of limits on king's ability to tax his subjects

Stephen Langton (1150-1228), Archbishop of Canterbury, who mediated the negotiations

King John I signing the Great Charter (Magna Carta) at Runnymede, 1215

Although the charter granted the rights demanded by the Barons, John annulled it a month later, with the support of the Papacy. As a result, the barons revolted once again and the kingdom descended into a total civil war. Furthermore, the Barons asked Philip of France for military aid. The French King rejected the proposal, but his son Louis accepted it. In 1216, Prince Louis of France invaded England and he was proclaimed King of England by the Barons. On the 19th of October, 1216, while preparing to face his enemies on the battlefield, John died of dysentery at Newark Castle in Nottinghamshire. With the king dead, his 9-year-old son Henry was crowned as Henry III. In 1217, Prince Louis was defeated and forced to leave England.